;F 239 V* ^-0-,i^'^ 

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PROFITABLE 
DAIRYING 




A MANUAL 

= FOR - 

FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN 



BY 

G. H. BENKENDORF 

Wisconsin Dairy School, Agrictiltural College, 
MADISON, WIS. 

AND 

K. L. HATCH 

Winnebago County Agricultural School, 
WINNECONNE, WIS. 



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FOREWORD 



*■ I 'HIS little book is not a text book 
•^ for the student of dairying, but 
a manual for farmers and dairymen. 
While the information contained 
herein is believed to be as reliable as 
that of scientific publications, it is set 
down in a form adapted to the general 
reader. No apologies are made for the 
use of everyday language, as the writers 
believe it best adapted to the needs of 
those for whom this work is intended. 
Neither are they convinced that the 
same simplicity of style is not befter 
adapted to the student of scientific 
agriculture. 

^ Acknowledgment is made to those 
■who have assisted us in any way in the 
production of this work, and especially 
to the breeders ■who have permified us 
to use photographs of famous dairy 
animals for illustrations. 



BENRENDORF S HATCH 



\ wo Copies tleceivo. 

MAY 28 "t90^ 

oussA XXc. N. 

-3.06 S^O 

i COPY B, 



Cc 


> p y r i ght 




1908 




by 


K. 


L. Hatch 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



Chapter I. IiitnMluctioii. 

Chapter II. Drvcloinnciil of llic Industry. 

Chapter III. CtjiuiKisitioii of Milk. 

Chapter IV. Secfetioii of Milk. 

Chapter ^'. The D.iiry Cow. 

Chapter VI. The Babcock Test. 

Chapter VII. Testing the Farm Herd. 

Chapter VIII. Cream Separation. 

Chapter IX. The Farm Separator. 

Chapter X. Value of Skim INIilk. 

Chapter XI. The Bain. 

Chapter XII. The Silo. 

Chapter XIII. Feed for the Cow. 

Chapter XIV. Kelatiun of I )aii-yin.i; to the Soil. 

Chapter XV. Care of the Cow. 

Chapter XVI. Care of Utensils. 

Chapter X^■II. Care of Milk and Cream. 

Chapter XVIII. Tuberculosis. 

Chapter XIX. Disposing of Milk and Cream. 



INTRODUCTION 
CHAPTER I. 

There is no branch of agriculture which yields so handsome and 
so satisfactory returns to the farmer as the dairy industry, if prop- 
erly pursued. To be sure there are other branches which yield 
larger returns, but these large profits are more than compensated 
for by the loss to the soil and the uncertainty of a safe return each 
year. Tobacco may be grown successfully for a number of years on 
the same piece of ground, but the soil must be diligently worked 
and extensively fertilized. In the end the overtaxed soil refuses to 
respond and finally lies exhausted. So it is with grain farming. 
One cannot draw continually on a bank account without renewing 
his deposits there. Neither can the farmer draw continually from 
the storehouse of plant food which he possesses, that is, from the 
soil of his farm, without putting back the same amount of fertility 
that he takes off with his crop, unless he wishes to wear out and 
ruin his farm. 

Now, in dairy farming the larger portion of all that is raised 
on the farm is fed there and ultimately finds its way back to the 
soil in the form of barnyard manure. The butter and cheese which 
are sold from the farm contain so small a portion of soil matter 
that the loss to the soil is scarcely perceptible. This is the chief 
reason why dairy farming is proving so profitable and is coming so 
rapidly into popular favor. 

But this is not all. Dairy farming promotes crop rotation and 
encourages the production of clover, alfalfa and other leguminous 
crops which if fed on the farm do not wear out the soil, but may 
positively add to its fertility. The progressive dairy farmer not 
only finds himself placed, through his industry, in a position of 
competence and ease, but under his wise management he finds the 
soil of his farm growing richer and more productive. All of these 
surprising assertions admit of absolute proof and will be fully dis- 
cussed in the chapters which follow. 

But the farmer who reads this must neither think it an over- 
drawn case for dairy farming on the one hand, nor imagine on the 
other hand that' all he has to do is to get a few cows and that 
they will take care of him for the rest of his days. Both positions 
are equally erroneous. No man can permanently succeed in any 
undertaking without putting intelligent thought and energy into 
his work. Neither can the dairy farmer. 

The ability to secure profits from dairying lies in a thorough 
knowledge of its fundamental principles. It is hoped that the 



information contained in this little book will be of value to the 
farmers who may chance to read it, in that it endeavors to set these 
principles forth in a simple and practical way. The authors have 
avoided the use of scientific terms so far as it is possible for them 
to do so, and have tried to use language and illustrations easily 
within the grasp of men not trained in scientific work. Wherever 
it has been necessary to resort to unusual terms, these terms are 
fully explained in ordinary every-day language. If the farmer, into 
whose hands this little book may happen to fall, will follow its 
teachings, exercise due industry, patience and perseverance, he can- 
not go far wrong in branching out into dairy farming, if he is not 
already engaged therein. If he is already a dairyman, it is hoped 
that it will render him service by assisting him to improve his 
methods, thereby increasing his profits. 

CHAPTER II. 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY. 

Dairying as an agricultural industry is very old, but as a "com- 
mercial" industry placed on a firm and sure scientific basis, it is 
very new — less than a quarter of a century of age. This fact is 
largely due to the invention of two machines which have com- 
pletely revolutionized the whole industry. These two machines are 
the Babcock tester and the centrifugal separator. 

Previous to 1879 the only method in common use for the sep- 
aration of fat from the milk was by setting the milk either in pans 
or cans and allowing the cream to rise naturally, but in that year 
two machines were invented, one in Denmark and the other in 
Sweden, which made use of the principle of centrifugal force for 
this separation, and were so constructed that the process was con- 
tinuous. Since that time other inventors have placed modifications 
of these machines on the market, but the principle employed is 
always the same, until today there are a dozen or more styles of 
thoroughly reliable centrifugal separators in every day use. 

This method of separation effected so large a saving of butter 
fat to the farmers that creameries rapidly sprang up, particularly 
in the north central states, accompanied by cheese factories, only to 
be defeated of their mission by dissatisfaction and fraud, because 
there was no quick and satisfactory method for determining the 
richness of the milk delivered by the patrons, and no way by which 
a f actoryman could determine the losses in skim milk, etc. In these 
early creameries and cheese factories an unprincipled patron could 
M^ater his milk in order to get the lion's share of the profits, as it 
was then the custom to pay for milk by the pound. Of course such 



fraud was certain to cause dissatisfaction, besides being manifestly 
unjust. 

Another thing well known even in those days, is that all cows 
are not equally good fat producers, that is, all cows do not give 
milk equally rich in fat, and the "pooling system," as it is called, 
where all farmers are paid the same price per hundred pounds of 
milk without regard to its fat content, is plainly not equitable. 

These two facts, viz. : that a patron could adulterate his milk 
and thereby increase his profits, and that a patron, although not 
adulterating his milk, could deliver milk from herds testing low in 
fat, and receive the same amount of money per hundred pounds of 
milk at the factory, led Dr. Babcock in an effort to solve the vexed 
problem of providing the dairy world with a quick and easy method 
for determining the fat content of milk. His labors resulted in the 
invention of the Babcock test in the year 1890, which date marks 
the beginning of active progress in .the dairy industry. This inven- 
tion is such a simple and practical method for the determination of 
fat in milk, cream, butter and cheese that it has never been im- 
proved upon, and it is doubtful if a better method will ever be 
discovered. Dr. Babcock's name is known the world over, and it is 
certain that no other man has ever contributed such a rich legacy 
to agriculture as has Dr. Babcock by the invention of this test. He 
did not patent it but gave it free to a great agricultural population 
where it found immediate adoption and widespread use. 

As an illustration of the rapid development of the dairy indus- 
try, it is only necessary to call attention to the census reports of 
the United States, which show but five creameries and cheese fac- 
tories within its domains in the year 1860. In 1890 this number 
had increased to 4,712, and in 1905 statistics collected in the one 
state of Wisconsin show a grand total of nearly 3,000 in that great 
dairy state. The total value of all butter and cheese produced by the 
factories within the United States in 1860 was but $33,500; in 
1890 this value had increased to nearly $63,000,000, and in 1905 
there was $45,000,000 worth of dairy products produced in the 
state of Wisconsin alone. While the progress is more marked in 
Wisconsin than in most of her sister states, yet her dairy develop- 
ment may be regarded as typical. It is estimated that for 1907 the 
value of the dairy products in the United States was over $700,- 
000,000. And the end is not yet. 

Notwithstanding the high prices paid for milk, butter and 
cheese, milk and its products are among the very cheapest, most 
wholesome and most nutritious articles of human food. There are 
more digestible nutrients contained in twenty-five cents worth of 
milk at six cents per quart than can be obtained from the same 



amount of money expended for meat, fish, fruits or vegetables at 
ordinary market prices. This fact will always operate to keep up 
the prices of dairy products. The cow is the most economical food 
producer extant. No one need fear an overproduction of dairy 
products. Whatever may have been the ups and downs of the past, 
certain it is that the future of the dairy industry looks exceedingly 
bright. 

CHAPTER III. 

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 

Milk as secreted is opaque and white in color. Normally it 
usually has a slightly yellowish appearance, due to the fat globules 
it contains. The white color is due to suspended particles reflecting 
the light. Skim milk, or milk from which the fat has been re- 
moved, has a bluish tinge due to the light reflecting on the casein 
and calcium phosphates of the milk. It has a sweetish taste when 
drawn owing to the presence of the milk sugar. 

Milk is heavier than water, having a specific gravity of about 
1.039 to 1.033. This means that if we had a vessel that would 
hold exactly 1,000 pounds of water, this same vessel would hold 
1,029 to 1,033 pounds of milk. 

Milk may be considered as consisting of two parts, viz. : the fat 
and the serum. One hundred pounds of milk ordinarily contains 
about 3.7 pounds of fat, the serum being all of the constituents of 
the milk except the fat, or 96.3 pounds. 

There is no chemical combination between the fat and the 
serum, but the fat floats in the serum in the form of very small par- 
ticles varying in size and number in different kinds of milk. The 
number of fat globules in a cubic millimeter, which is about the 
size of a pinhead, is from one to five million, depending, of course, 
upon the kind of milk. Ordinary milk contains about two million 
fat globules to the drop, and it is estimated by the Agricultural De- 
partment at Washington that it would take a j^ian ten years to 
count this number at the rate of one hundred per minute, counting 
ten hours per day. 

When first drawn the fat globules are uniformly distributed, but 
after standing a few minutes these globules gather into groups of 
ten to one hundred, although we find throughout the milk small, 
isolated, individual globules. Their average diameter is about one 
five-thousandth of an inch ; some are as large as one one-thousandth 
of an inch, while others are so small that they appear under a micro- 
scope like very tiny specks, too small to be measured. 

The number of fat globules increases as the period of lactation 
advances, there being from two to three times as many in the same 



volume at the end as at the beginning; the size, however, greatly 
diminishes. The fat globules in milk of different breeds vary in size, 
the largest ones being found in Jersey milk. The Ayrshire and 
Holstein-Friesian cows have the smallest; the Shorthorn ranking 
between the Jersey and Ayrshire, although certain strains of Short- 
horn cows produce milk with very large fat globules. It may be 
interesting to note that the largest fat globules on record were 
found in Shorthorn milk. 

The serum is composed of water and solids (usually designated 
as solids not fat). These embrace such solids as casein, albumen, 
sugar and ash, varying in amounts with different individual cows, 
and with the fat comprise what are known as total solids. Below 
is a table showing the average composition of milk : 

Water 87.4 per cent 

Fat 3.7 per cent 

Albumen 5 per cent 

Casein 2.7 per cent 

Milk Sugar 5.0 per cent 

Ash 7 per cent 

100.0 
The most variable of these constituents is the fat; the casein, 
albumen, sugar and ash being quite constant. The fat content 
varies a great deal according to the breed. It is well known that 
the milks of Jersey and Guernsey breeds are rich in fat. To show 
these breed variations we append the following table compiled by 
the agricultural experiment stations of America : 

Jersey 5.35 per cent 

Guernsey 5.16 per cent 

Shorthorn 4.5 per cent 

Ayrshire 3.66 per cent 

Holstein-Friesian 3.42 per cent 

It must not be inferred from this that all Jersey cows produce 
milk of such richness as given in this table. As a matter of fact 
there is a great difference with the individuals of each breed. Cer- 
tain Holstein-Friesian cows have been known to produce milk as low 
as 2.8 per cent fat, and even lower, while other individual Holstein- 
Friesian cows may produce milk containing 4.0 per cent fat. But 
this table shows the average from a large number of cows. 

The per cent of fat in milk changes somewhat with the period 
of lactation. Professor Van Slyke of the Geneva Station, New 
York, gives a table showing a gradual increase as the period of 
lactation advances. It will be noticed that for the first five months 
the milk did not increase in richness, but remained practically the 
same; after that the fat of the milk gradually became richer as 
the period advanced. 

9 , 



Month of Per cent of 

Lactation Fat in Milk 

1 4.54 

2 4.33 

3 4.28 

4 4.39 

5 4.38 

6 4.53 

7 4.56 

8 4.6« 

9 4.79 

10 5.00 

The time between milkings has a great influence on the fat 
content of the milk. It is quite generally known that morning 
milk is richer than evening milk. This is not always true, but in 
general we find that when a cow is milked three or four times a 
day she will produce richer milk than when she is only milked 
twice. As a rule the richer milk follows the shorter period between 
milkings. This is an important fact to bear in mind when the 
milk of a cow is tested for its fat content. 

Milk will vary a great deal in richness from day to day. The 
health of the animal also has an influence on the variation of the 
percentage of fat. Excitement may very materially reduce the quan- 
tity of milk as well as the quality. It is therefore poor policy for 
a dairyman to abuse his cows by beating them or by allowing them 
to be chased by dogs. 

The first milk after a cow freshens is termed colostrum milk. 
Instead of having a solid not fat content of 9.0 per cent, it seldom 
falls belows 18.0 per cent. The great increase in the solids not fat 
is due to the increase in those substances which are very essential 
as a food for the calf during the first three or four days after birth, 
viz. : casein and albumen. The following table gives the composi- 
tion of this milk, showing that the fat content is quite normal but 
that the solids not fat differ greatly from the solids not fat in nor- 
mal milk. 

Water 74.(3 per cent 

Fat 3.6 per cent 

Casein 4.0 per cent 

Albumen 13.6 per cent 

Milk Sugar 2.6 per cent 

Ash 1.6 per cent 

100.0 

- However, these solids not fat constituents in the colostrum milk 
decrease very rapidly so that the milk becomes "normal" at the 
seventh or eighth milking. This colostrum milk, although it is not 
in any way poisonous, is very undesirable for purposes other than 

10 



food for the calf. It should, therefore, not be delivered to a cream- 
ery or cheese factory until it is fit for human use. 

The casein in milk varies with different animals from 1.8 per 
cent to 3.0 per cent, but in the individual it is quite constant. This 
casein, with the albumen, comprise what are known as proteids of 
milk. These proteids are very valuable as food and furnish the 
muscle producing- elements so essential. The casein and the fat 
constitute what are known as the cheese solids of milk. These two 
components determine the value of the milk for cheese production. 

The sugar in the milk is an important constituent, but should 
not be confused with commercial cane sugar. Milk sugar is only 
about one-fourth as sweet as ordinary cane sugar. It is manufac- 
tured from the whey at a few cheese factories in this country, but 
has very little commercial value, being used only in putting up 
modified milk, etc. 

A great deal may be said in regard to the quality of milk as 
afl'ected by varying conditions, such as slow and fast milking, sudden 
changes in the feed and the nervous condition of the cow. Suffice 
it to say that a good dairyman will always treat his cows kindly, 
will not be boisterous while handling them, will not excite them in 
any way, will feed them regularly and provide shelter for them. 
He will remember that the cow is one of his best friends and that 
she represents so much capital invested, and that abusing her will 
very materially affect the dividends that she will be able to pay him. 

CHAPTER IV. 

MILK SECRETION. 

It is very essential that a dairyman should understand the 
fundamental principles connected with his work. Not the least of 
these is the secretion of milk. In this brief work we cannot discuss 
in detail the various theories and opinions advanced in regard to 
the secretion of milk, but will in a general way cover the ground 
so that the reader will have a fair understanding. 

Milk may be briefly defined as a characteristic secretion of the 
mammary glands. Its primary function, naturally, is for the nutri- 
tion of the young. As a food for young animals it cannot be ex- 
celled, for it contains elements that are necessary for the building 
up of the tissues of the body, and it contains these elements in the 
proper proportion. The class of animals that suckle their young are 
termed "mammals" and are nearly all four-footed animals. To this 
order, however, belong some animals that live in the sea, such as 
porpoises and whales, which secrete a fluid very similar to that oi 
the milk of land animals; but with a few exceptions all mammals 



are land animals. We shall, however, confine our discussion of milk 
in this work to that produced by cows, although the milk of other 
animals, such as sheep and goats, is used as food in different places, 
especially in various parts of Europe. 

The glands which secrete the milk are only two in number. 
There may be one lobe to each gland, or, as in the case of the dog 
or swine, several. In cows these lobes are termed "quarters," and 
there are two to each gland. These four quarters form what is 
termed the udder. 

These glands are separated from each other by a membrane. 
There is, therefore, no connection between the right and left side 
of the udder. Each teat has practically its own system of cisterns, 
channels and cells, and although there seems to be some connection 
between the two lobes in each gland, practically there is none. 
This is shown by the fact that one of the quarters may be diseased 
without affecting the other. It is well known, however, that we can 
get more than half as much milk from one teat than we can if we 
milk both teats at the same time, which shows that there must be 
some relation between the two lobes. 

Just above each teat we find a small cavity from which there 
lead many small channels ; these in turn lead to other but smaller 
cavities. All these cavities are termed "cisterns." These small 
channels, with their cisterns, ramify the udder, becoming smaller 
and smaller, finally terminating in cells. These are the alveoli 
cells. The inner wall of the alveoli cell is made up of a layer of 
very minute cells ; sometimes there are two or three layers of these. 
These small cells are filled with protoplasm, and when this proto- 
plasm is discharged it is termed milk. 

At one time it was the general belief that the udder was a reser- 
voir, and it may be that many readers still have the impression that 
this is the case. This is not true, for the total capacity of all the 
reservoirs or cisterns is not one-fourth the yield of the milk. 

The glands secrete milk all the time, but principally at the time 
of milking. We can compare this to the secreting of tears by the 
tear glands of the eye. These glands secrete tears all the time, but 
especially when an animal experiences great joy or grief. Sim- 
ilarly the nervous condition of the cow at the time of milking will 
greatly influence the secretion of milk. 

As previously stated, there are many theories advanced as to the 
formation of milk. It is claimed by some that milk is filtered out 
of the blood; the udder being well supplied with arteries and 
veins probably gave rise to this idea. 

We find, however, that there is 'very little if any milk sugar in 
the blood, while there is a great deal in milk. No casein is found 



12 



in the blood. It is also a fact that the albumen in milk coagulates 
differently than the albumen of the blood. Further, it may be 
stated, that the ash in milk is that of potassium salts, while the ash 
of the blood is largely that of sodium salts. It is believed that 
somehow in the process of secretion certain parts of the blood are 
changed into casein, that other constituents pass into the cells with- 
out very much change, and when the cells within the alveoli cells 
break down, the resulting product is milk. 

The attention of the reader is now called to a very important 
point, viz. : that the tendency of the cell is always to produce 
milk of its own particular composition. This tendency is very con- 
stant, and therefore the composition of milk cannot be permanently 
changed by a change of feed. That is, the quantity of milk which a 
cow produces may be considerably increased, but the quality will 
remain practically the same. To make this plain, we may use this 
illustration: A tree will always produce the same kind of fruit; by 
giving the tree good food it is possible to increase its yield, but a 
winesap tree will always produce winesap apples. So it is with the 
cow. It is the nature of the cells to secrete a particular grade of 
milk, and therefore no system of feeding will permanently increase 
or decrease its fat content. The idea is prevalent among many 
farmers that a cow can be made to give rich or poor milk, depend- 
ing on what she is fed. 

The Danes did a great deal of work along this line, experiment- 
ing to see whether or not feed influenced the richness of the milk, 
and in conducting their experiments used over a thousand animals. 
The average variation was only about one one-hundredth of one 
per cent. Such a slight variation cannot be attributed to the method 
of feeding. Experiments have been conducted by taking a poor 
herd of cows and testing each individual carefully and then feeding 
judiciously. The quantity of milk produced was easily increased, 
but the quality always remained normal. 

The fact that "fat cannot be fed into a cow" is very important. 
A farmer can test a heifer, and if she does not produce milk of a 
satisfactory quality he need not keep her, for he may rest assured 
that the quality of her milk will not materially change later on in 
her life. In this way, therefore, it is possible for a fa rmer to build 
up a good herd by selecting his cows. This topic will be discussed 
more at length in a later chapter. 



13 



CHAPTER V. 

THE DAIRY COW. 

Generally speaking, cattle may be classified as belonging to one 
of three types, viz.: beef, dual purpose and dairy. 

To the beef type belong those which are kept on farms solely for 
their value as beef producers. They are as a rule compact in form, 
having a broad back and a deep, wide body. They are not adapted 
for dairying inasmuch as they usually do not secrete more 
milk than is necessary to raise the calf. They have small udders 
and are not persistent in their flow of milk. There are, however, 
individual exceptions among most of these breeds that produce a 
fair amount of milk, but the tendency of the members of this 
type is to convert their food into beef rather than into milk. To 
this type belong the Shorthorns, Hereford, Aberdeen Angus, Gal- 
loway and Sussex cattle. 

To the dual purpose type belong those cattle that produce more 
milk than those of the beef type, and at the same time flesh up 
reasonably well. They are usually less in width than the beef 
type and have larger udders. They are presumed to milk well 
and when "dry" to convert their food rapidly into beef. There are 
many arguments produced both in favor of such a type and against 
it. It is argued by some that such breeds are really necessary in 
certain sections of this country. This type is many a farmer's 
ideal ; but it is questionable whether or not such an ideal will ever 
be profitably realized. The Eed Polled, Devon, and Brown Swiss 
cattle are the prominent breeds classed as dual purpose animals, 
though strictly speaking as individuals they tend either to produce 
milk or beef rather than both. Certain families of the Shorthorns 
are also included because they give a fair quantity of good testing 
milk and at the same time are fair producers of beef. 

The dairy type includes such breeds as are not inclined to pro- 
duce beef. They necessarily have less breadth of back, and, unlike 
the beef breeds, fleshiness is not desired. Cows belonging to this 
type should have a tendency to produce milk and not to convert 
their food into beef. It would be difficult to describe in brief the 
many desirable points which indicate a good dairy cow. Authorities 
usually agree that the ideal cow should have what is termed a 
"triple wedge" form. It must be noted, however, that occasionally 
there are individuals that do not conform to the ideal yet are 
good dairy cows. However, these are only exceptions. It is 
of the utmost importance that the dairy cow have ample room in 
her body for such organs as the lungs, heart, digestive and maternal 
organs. This indicates a vigorous constitution which is necessary 

14 



in order that she may be able to withstand the strain of continually 
producing large quantities of milk. This widening of the body 
towards the rear gives to her the "wedge form." Inasmuch as she 
is usually compared to a machine which converts food into milk, 
it is very essential that she have a large "barrel," which is an indi- 
cation that she can consume a large supply of food for the manu- 
facture of her milk. 




l)r;i\vii)g showing "triple wedge" form of a famous dairy cow. The 
wedge form as viewed from the top over the shoulders is more pro- 
nounced thau in the drawiug from the rear view, shown at the left. 

The udder should be ample in size ; it should have good form 
with four well shaped teats; it should be soft after milking and 
materially smaller than before milking. Meaty udders are very 
undesirable as they indicate a lack of capacity. Since the udder 
must be well supplied with arteries and veins in order to furnish 
the milk secreting cells with the food material from which they are 
to secrete milk, a good cow usually has* large milk veins under- 
neath her belly. 

A great deal more might be said as to the desirable character- 
istics which a good dairy animal usually possesses, but suffice it 
to say that the real test of her value as a dairy cow is her fat pro- 
ducing qualities. This can only be learned by using a pair of 
scales to ascertain the amount of milk she produces, and a fat test 
to determine the richness of her milk. There are many cows that 
give a good flow of milk, reasonably rich in fat, during the fore- 
part of their period of lactation, yet cows of this kind may be very 
undesirable animals to keep, owing to the fact that they may not 

IS 



be persistent milkers. The value of the methods eirf^loyed in de- 
termining the productive qualities of an individual cow are dis- 
cussed in detail in a separate chapter in this work to which we 
respectfully refer the reader. 

It is unfortunate for the dairy industry that we do not find 
more pure bred stock in this country. We believe that the farmer 
should raise pure bred stock because it is more profitable for him 
to do so rather than to raise "scrubs." It may cost a trifle more 
to begin with, but it will be money well invested if he intends to 
make dairying a paying business. In case he cannot begin with 
pure bred stock, it will be well for him to grade up his cattle as 
rapidly as possible by the use of a pure bred sire. It may be well 
to discuss briefly a few of the distinctive dairy breeds, representa- 
tives of which are found in almost every communitv. 




Lorctta J). World famous clinmpion Jersey cow at tlio St. Loui.s 
Exposition, 1904. This cow produced in 120 days 5,802.7 pounds milk 
testing 4.S2 per cent, or 280.16 pounds butter fat. Weig-ht 1,075 pounds. 
Cotirtesy of F. H. Scribner, Rosendale, Wis. 

Jersey — As the name indicates, they originally came from 
the Isle of Jersey, which is one of the small islands in the English 
Channel. Here the people bred their cattle along distinctive lines, 
with the result that they established a breed that has many able 
and enthusiastic champions. Tlic Jerseys arc usually small cows, 
weighing from 650 to 1,000 pounds, averaging about nine hundred 



pounds each. They produce milk rich in fat testing 4.0 per cent 
and over. As a rule they are persistent milkers but usually do not 
produce large quantities of milk. This latter statement is used 
as an argument against them. We find that these animals have 
some good records to sustain their claim as a notable dairy breed. 
At the World's Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago in 1893, a 
ninety-day test was conducted in which twenty-five Jerseys took 
part. Several of these animals were sick, but in spite of this the 
milk produced amounted to thirty-three pounds a day for each 
cow. At the St. Louis Exposition in 1904, twenty-five cows pro- 
duced milk averaging forty-one and one-half pounds for each day 
for ninety days. These are remarkable showings and speak well 




Colantha 4th's Johanna. World famous Holstein-Priesian cow which 
produced in one year 27,432.5 pounds milk testing- 3.64 per cent, yielding 
998.25 pounds butter fat. This is the largest amount of fat produced in 
one year by any cow of any breed. Courtesy of the owner, W. J. Gillett, 
Rosendale, Wisconsin. 

for this breed. Although small in stature, we believe the time will 
come when breeders will be able to develop certain families of a 
larger frame and more vigorous constitution than the Jersey of 
the present time, and at the same time preserve in the families the 
desirable qualities possessed by the Jersey cow of today. 

Holstein-Friesian — It is not known just where the ancestors 

17 



of this famous breed originated, but it is well known tlfat Holstein- 
Friesians have been in Holland for hundreds of years, and the 
breed is one of the oldest, if not the oldest, in existence. The indi- 
viduals have a large frame and weigh from 1,000 to 1,400 pounds. 
They are good feeders of roughage, and on account of this stand in 
favor with many farmers. The milk is not so rich as that of some 
other breeds, but what it lacks in quality is usually made up in 
quantity. 




Yeksa. Sunbeam. Celebrated Guernsey cow, owned by Helendale 
Farms, Athens, Wisconsin. Slie produced within one year 14,920!S pounds 
milk testing- 5.74 per cent, or 857.15 pounds butter fat. This amount of 
fat would make more than 1,000 pounds of butter. Courtesy owner, 
Rietbrock Estate. 

The flow is, as a rule, exceedingly large and certain families of 
this breed produce milk testing 4.0 per cent and over. The greatest 
record of any cow for the amount of milk produced was that of a 
Holstein-Friesian, viz., Pieterje Second. This remarkable animal 
produced 30,315i/o pounds of milk in one year. Cows of this breed 
have been reported as producing as much as 1221/2 pounds of milk 
per day. At the St. Louis Fair of 1904, fifteen Holstein-Friesian 
cows were entered in competition with Jerseys and other breeds. 
They were milked for 120 days and averaged 53.4 pounds each day. 
It is safe to say that a good Holstein-Friesian cow will produce six 
to seven thousand pounds of milk each year, if she is given proper 
care and treatment. 

Guernsey — This breed has become exceedingly popular within 
the last few years. Like the Jersey, they derive their name from 
the island on which they originated, which is another one of the 

18 



islands in the English Channel. Members of this breed have 
larger frames than do the Jerseys. They also have more vigorous 
constitutions and average 1,050 pounds in weight. They are good 
milkers and their milk is of a superior quality which tests well. 
This breed produces a butter fat which is distinctively yellow. In 
fact some of the butter produced from the milk of Guernsey cows 
and exhibited at a dairy convention was so yellow that it was be- 
lieved by the judges that it contained coloring matter. The butter 
was accordingly analyzed and found to be entirely free from such 
artificial ingredients. The milk from this breed is splendidly 
adapted for city milk trade on account of this rich yellow tinge so 
attractive to the customer. It is generally conceded that the milk 
of the Guernsey is not quite so rich in fat as that of the Jerse}^, but 




Typical Ayrshire cow. Owned by tlie Wisconsin Experiment Station, 
Madison. Notice the peculiar shape of the liorns and the characteristic 
marking's of this breed. 

the quantity given is usually greater. At the Pan American Expo- 
sition the Jersey milk tested 4.82 per cent while the Guernsey 
tested 4.68 per cent. 

It was at this exposition held at Buffalo that the ten-year-old 
Guernsey cow, Mary Marshall, produced 5,611 pounds of milk, 
yielding 301.13 pounds of butter fat. This test covered a period 
of six months. The performances of Yeksa Sunbeam and Dolly 
Bloom, both Guernsey cows, are explained in a note accompanying 
the illustrations. 

19 



Ayrshire — These cows are found principally in Mew England 
and Eastern States and Canada. They originally came from Scot- 
land and possess a great deal of merit. Like the Holstein-Friesian 
they are as a rule persistent milkers. They are medium sized 
animals, weighing about one thousand pounds. The milk of this 
breed of cows is particularly adapted for cheese making, owing to 
the small size of its fat globules and its relatively large casein con- 
tent. The milk tests usually from 3.5 to 4.0 per cent fat. At the 
Pan American Exposition the five Ayrshire cows ranked second in 
milk production, yielding 55 pounds per cow for each day of the 
test. 

CHAPTER VI. 

THE BABCOCK TEST. 

As has already been stated, the Babcock test is responsible for 
much of the progress in dairying during the past fifteen years. Its 
operation is so simple, the principles upon which it is based are so 
easily understood, and its intelligent use by dairymen is of such 
great importance that it is deemed quite proper to give considerable 
space in this book to this test. 

It will be remembered that milk is composed of water, fat, curd, 
sugar and ash in various proportions, and that the fat globules are 
simply floating or suspended in the milk serum. When these 
globules rise to the top naturally they drag the curd and other 
solids along with them and form a layer at the top, rich in fat, 
which we call cream. Before the invention of the Babcock test it 
was the practice in some places to collect samples of milk or cream, 
churn them and melt the lumps of butter in graduated tubes, from 
which the amount of fat could be estimated. The purpose of melt- 
ing the churned butter was to collect the fat into a clear layer of 
oil. Sometimes several churnings and consequent rechurnings 
were necessary to make a clear test. This test, known as the churn 
test, was a slow, laborious, and somewhat unreliable process. 

In the Babcock test the separation of butter fat from the other 
constituents is accomplished in a few minutes. The curd is dis- 
solved by a strong acid which will not act upon the fat. The fat 
globules are brought to the surface by whirling in a machine called 
a centrifuge. This layer of fat is brought up into the neck of the 
test bottles into which the samples of milk were placed at the be- 
ginning of the test, and the percentage of fat read directly from the 
neck of the test bottle. The entire test takes about ten to fifteen 
minutes of time, is thoroughly reliable and can be made by anyone 
possessing ordinary intelligence. 

20 



DETAILS OF THE TEST. 

1. Preparation of the Sample : 

Great care is necessary in the preparation of the sample. If a 
herd is to be tested the entire milk of the whole herd must be 
thoroughly mixed before a portion is taken for testing. This mix- 
ing is accomplished by pouring from one vessel to another, and the 
sample taken immediately before any of the fat globules have had 
time to rise. If the milk stands for a minute even after being 
mixed, the sample will not be accurate, so rapidly do the fat 
globules tend to come to the surface. 

If a single cow is to be tested, she must first be milked perfectly 
dry, then all of her milk must be thoroughly mixed and a portion 
of this taken for testing. It is important to have all of the cow's 
milk, as the fat content tends to increase during the process of 
milking, the strippings being much richer than the foremilk ; often 
the foremilk will test less than one per cent, and the strippings 
over ten per cent. For this reason the sample can never be milked 
into a separate vessel if accurate results are desired, but must be 
taken from the whole amount of milk and then only after a thor- 
ough stirring. 

If a small sample is to be tested this too must be thoroughly 
mixed before the final sample is taken in the pipette. If more than 
one test is to be made from the same sample the sample should be 
mixed each time before being drawn into the pipette. Thorough 
mixing is the most important part of sampling, and good sampling 
is one of the most important points to be observed in making a cor- 
rect test. 

2. Filling the Test Bottle : 

When the sample has been thoroughly mixed the milk should be 
drawn into the pipette by suction with the mouth until it rises 
above the mark on the stem. The forefinger of the hand in which 
the pipette is held is then quickly placed on top of the pipette and 
the milk is allowed to run down to the mark where it is checked 
and held by the forefinger. The test bottle is taken in the other 
hand, slightly inclined, the filled pipette introduced into the neck, 
the finger is removed and the milk allowed to run down the side 
of the neck into the test bottle. Great care should be used not to 
lose any of the sample; even if a few drops are spilled the test 
is spoiled and another test should be made. 

3. Adding the Acid: 

Ordinary commercial sulphuric acid at a specific gravity of 
1.82 to 1.83 is used. It may be purchased at any drug store for 
three or four cents per pound. It is poisonous and must not be 

21 



allowed to come in contact with the s'cin, hands, closing or tin ( 
iron vessels. If by accident any should be spilled, it should 1: 
washed off immediately, using plenty of water. An application <: 
dilute ammonia is very beneficial in neutralizing the acid. 

In making the test the acid measure is filled to the mark wit 
this acid, and the acid is poured down the inside of the neck of tl 
test bottle in the same way in which the milk was introduced. ] 
is important to let the acid run down the side of the bottle, an 
not drop it straight down through the milk, as this will burn tl' 
curd and cause black particles of burned curd to rise into the h 
and spoil the test. 

4. Mixing Milk and Acid : 

The milk and acid having been placed in the test bottle, ai 
now mixed by taking the bottle by the neck and giving it . 
rotary motion. The acid immediately dissolves the curd, the bott] 
gets hot and the contents turn black. 

5. Whirling and Pilling Bottles : 

The bottles are now placed in the machine and whirled fc 
five minutes. They are then filled up to the bottom of the nee 
with hot water, using either the acid measure or the pipette for th: 
purpose. If hard water is used the lime in it must be destroyed b 
adding to it a drop of acid before filling the bottles, otherwise th 
lime in the water may cause a foam to appear on the fat and spo 
the reading. Only a drop of acid should be used, and to prever 
accident this should be dropped from the acid measure and nc 
from the bottle. Great care is necessary in handling this acid. 

The bottles are whirled a second time for one minute, the fa 
brought up into the neck far enough so that it can be read by add 
ing a few drops more of hot water, the bottles returned to the teste 
and whirled a third time for a minute or two, when they are take: 
out and read immediately. 

6. Eeading the Fat: 

The fat column is read from its highest point to its lowest poin 
while yet hot (130-145 degrees F.) and before it has had time t 
solidify. If the fat should get cold it may be melted by placing th 
bottles in hot water well up to the neck. 

If both ends of the fat column are above the zero point, not 
the reading of these two points and take their differences. For ex 
ample: If the lowest point of the fat is 1.8 per cent and th' 
highest is 5.6 per cent, then the per cent of fat is 5.6 — 1.8 or 3.! 
per cent. A quicker way is to place a pair of dividers with it 
legs so spread that one of them rests on the highest point and thi 
other on the lowest point of the fat against the neck of the tes 

2? 



bottle and then move it down so that the lower leg rests at the zero 
point; the upper will rest at the correct reading of the fat. 
7. Emttying the Waste : 

The waste in the bottles should never be emptied into anything 
but earthen jars. This waste contains much strong acid, and should 
be thrown where it cannot do injury to plants or animals. It is 
usual to place a board cover over an ordinary jar, and then bore 
holes about three-fourths of an inch in diameter through this 
cover. Through these holes the necks of the inverted test bottles 
are thrust and their contents allowed to drain into the waste jar. 
The jar is then emptied where its contents are not likely to cause 
injury, and washed out with hot water to remove the grease unde- 
stroyed by the acid. 

The importance of every dairyman owning a pair of scales and 
a Babcock tester is discussed in a later chapter of this work. More 
definite and minute instructions for making the test are usually 
given with the apparatus by reliable dealers in dairy supplies. 

CHAPTER VII. 

TESTING THE FAEM HERD. 

No dairyman should keep a cow that produces less than 250 
pounds of butter fat annually, and an average of a pound a day for 
300 days of the year is not too high a standard. Whole herds have 
frequently been found which produced even more than that. Of 
fifty-seven cows tested in Wisconsin in 1904: and 1905 for admis- 
sion to the Advanced Register of the Holstein-Friesian Association, 
during a period of one week, the highest record for that time was 
201/4 pounds, or nearly three pounds of butter fat daily. The low- 
est was 11.6 pounds, and the average of the entire lot was a trifle 
less than 15 pounds or over two pounds of fat daily per cow. Colan- 
tha 4th's Johanna was among this number, and was awarded first 
place for producing I214' pounds of" l)utter fat in a week," 375 days 
after calving. This remarkable animal lias since produced 998.26 
pounds of butter fat during the year 1907, and by this phenomenal 
yield has earned for herself the title of the "World's Champion 
Cow." In a single month this cow produced 110.83 pounds of but- 
ter fat, a larger amount than is produced in a whole year by so 
called "dairy cows" in many herds. While this cow has outstripped 
all competitors and stands in a class by herself, there are many 
others holding records of over five hundred pounds of butter fat 
annually. 

There is a cow in Wisconsin, belonging to the University herd, 

23 



of Red Polled origin, not essentially a dairy breeds that has a 
record of 650 pounds in one year. In all the numerous "official" 
tests that have been made in Wisconsin during the past few years, 
very few of the cows have been found to fall below the three hun- 
dred pound mark, and the majority of them exceed four hundred 
pounds of butter fat annually. 




Merry Maiden's Third Son. Grand cluunpion Jersey bull of tiie 
World's Pair, St. Louis, 1904. Grandson of the celebrated Brown Bessie. 
Courtesy of the owner, H. C. Taylor, Orfordville, Wisconsin. 

Adopting 300 pounds of butter fat as a standard which the 
dairyman may reasonably expect his cows to attain, let us see what 
such a cow is worth to him. It is well known that the amount of 
butter made from a given quantity of butter fat exceeds the weight 
of fat by about one-sixth. This is because of the water, curd and 
salt, which are normal constituents of l)utter, and which, added to 
the fat, increase its weight. Three hundred pounds of fat, then, 
will make one-sixth more butter, or 350 pounds of butter. During 
the past seven years good creamery butter has averaged about 24 
cents per pound the year round. The cow that has returned to the 

24 



farmer 350 pounds of good butter has brought him $84, a pretty 
neat sum. And here, too many let the calculation stop. Herein 
lies the error. Though she has returned him this amount, he must 
not forget that she has cost him something in feed and care. Dur- 
ing the period from 1900 to 1908 this cost has not been far from 
$40 per 3'ear in the north central states. Deducting this from the 
amount received for the butter leaves a nice little profit of $44. 
Neither must it be forgotten that in addition to this there is the 
skim milk which has been fed to the pigs and calves, from which 
additional profit has been secured. Nor should we forget that she 
has probably eaten hay and grain raised on the farm, and the fer- 
tilitv in the manure has found its wav back to the soil. 




Shadybrook Gerben. Leading- Holstein-Friesian cow at the Louisiana 
Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, 1904. In 120 days slae produced 8,101.7 
pounds of milk testing- 3.4S per cent, or 282. 6 pounds butter fat. Notice 
the -wedge shaped form and the unusually large udder of this remark- 
able co-w. Weight 1,319 pounds. Courtesy o-wner, M. E. Moore, Cameron, 
Missouri. 

Let US suppose another case. Instead of producing fat for 350 
pounds of butter let us see what would have been the result had 
she produced sufficient fat for 200 pounds of butter only. This 
butter at the same rate would have brought $48, and the farmer's 
profit would have been but $8, or less than one-fifth as much as that 
of the first cow. In other words, the first cow is worth more to the 
dairvman than five of the second. 



Looking at it from still another point of view. Suppose another 
cow can produce but 150 pounds of butter annually, what is she 
worth? Let us see. At 24 cents per pound this amount of butter 
is worth $36, or $4 less than it costs to keep the cow that produced 
it. 

Where dairying has been tried and abandoned as unprofitable, 
in nine cases out of ten it has been because the farmer kept just 
this kind of cows. How necessary then that he know just what each 
member of his herd is worth to him. He can know this if he is 
willing to spend the time and effort necessary to weigh and test the 
milk of each cow in his herd. 

The test is made in the following manner : A bottle holding 
about a pint is labeled, showing the name and number of the cow, 
and into this bottle is placed a piece of bichromate of potassium 
the size of a pea. This chemical is a cheap preservative which can 
be purchased at any drug store and keeps the sample from souring. 

Before the milk is sampled it is thoroughly mixed as under 
directions for sampling already given in the chapter on the Bab- 
cock Test, and a tablespoonful of this milk is placed in the bottle. 
This sampling is repeated at each successive milking and the sample 
for testing is taken from this composite sample. In this way a 
single test will answer for each cow. If the cream in the sample 
gets thick or churns, it may be easily mixed up again with the milk 
if the sample bottle is first placed in warm water. In making a 
composite test, the same care should be exercised in mixing the 
sample, as is necessary in all testing with the Babcock test. 

By taking composite samples of the milk from each cow in the 
herd, testing them weekly and keeping an accurate record of these 
tests and of the weight of milk given by each cow every day of her 
milking period, the dairyman may ascertain for himself exactly 
what each cow is worth to him. This is the best and only reliable 
method, and the one followed at most well regulated dairies. Of 
course, it takes time, but it pays in the long run. 

Fairly accurate results may be obtained, however, by weighing 
and testing one day in each week during the whole period of lacta- 
tion, multiplying the weight by 7 to get the amount given by 
each cow. Another practical method is to take weights and com- 
posite samples for six consecutive days each month during the whole 
period of lactation, and multiplying these weights by 5 to get the 
weight of milk given by each cow during each particular month of 
her milking period. 

Too many farmers make a single weight and test of the milk of 
their several cows and then let the matter drop. This is a serious 
mistake, as it teaches next to nothing, and the only way that the 

26 



dairyman may know exactly what each of his cows is worth to him 
is by testing frequently, weighing every day in the year and multi- 
plying the total weight by the average test to get the weight of 
butter fat. There are shorter methods requiring less time, but they 
are all open to one objection — inaccuracy — and are not recom- 
mended. 




Dolly Bloom. Noted Guernsey cow. Has remarkable record of 
17,297.5 pounds milk in one year, testing 4.87 per cent, yielding- S36.2 
pounds butter fat. Notic.e the characteristic Guernsey markings and 
tlie well formed udder. Courtesy owner, Langwater Farms, Nortli 
Easton, Massachusetts. 

The simplest and easiest of these methods is to weigh and test 
the milk of each cow for six days during the fifth month of her 
milking period. It has been shown by experiment that the fat pro- 
duction for the fifth month represents to a considerable degree the 
average production for the ten months that a cow is in milk. If 
this be true then this weight multiplied by five will give the average 

27 



weight produced monthly, and this monthly average ^lultiplied by 
ten will give the total amount of milk produced in ten months, the 
number of months every good dairy cow should give milk during 
the year. This total amount of milk multiplied by the test will 
give the yield of fat, to which one-sixth is added to find the butter 
yield. This method is rapid and fairly accurate. One example to 
illustrate : Suppose a cow is found to give 100 pounds of milk in 
six days. Then 100X5X10=5000 pounds of milk annually. The 
test is 4.2 per cent. Then 5000X-i.2 per cent=210 lbs. butter fat; 
1-6 of 210 is 35; then 210-|-35=245, or this cow produces approx- 
imately 245 pounds of butter annually. 



Brown Bessie. Typical Jersey cow. Cliampion butter cow of tiie 
ninety-day test at the Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. During 
the ninety days slie produced 3,6.34 pounds of milk, yielding- 178.12 
pounds butter fat. Note the well formed and capacious udder. Cour- 
tesy of the owner, H. C. Taylor, Orfordville, Wisconsin. 

Every good dairyman should know about what each cow in his 
herd is producing and send to the slaughter house all cows that are 
not yielding him a profit. The only way for him to learn this is 
by weighing and testing the milk from each cow in some such 
manner as has been outlined herein, preferably for every day of 
the time that the cow is in milk during the year. It should also 
be added that he should take into account the amount of feed con- 
sumed by each cow. It is not always the largest fat producers that 

28 



are the most profitable cows, but the ones that produce the largest 
amount of fat at the least cost. 



The following from Hoard's Dairyman gives the actual herd 
record as kept by an Oregon dair3man : 

"Hoard'» Dairyman : — I enclose the report of our dairy herd of 
20 cows for the year from Jan. 1st, 1907, to Dec. 31. Our herd 
consists of mixed stock with some Jersey blood in most of them. 
We bought a full blood Jersey bull last summer and are going to 
breed up our herd. 

"I credit each cow every month with what the price was at that 
time and that causes the price received for the fat to differ wuth the 
different cows. The butter was made at home and shipped to Port- 
land, the milk is weighed mornings and eveninsfs." 



No. of Cow. Lbs. Milk. 

14 0,907 

13 7,905 

9 7,158 

10 (5,575 

4 6,132 

6 7,915 

15 6,642 

7 6,455 

1 6,267 

2 5,994 

16 5,123 

11 5,210 

20 5,230 

18 4,608 

17 5.547 

19 4,588 

3 5,787 

12 3,943 



Lbs. Butter- 
Ave Test. Fat. Av 



4.91 

4.08 

4.41 

4.61 

4.77 

3.56 

4.14 

3.9 

3.05 

4.14 

4.62 

4.44 

4.38 

4.67 

3.86 

4.55 

3.6 

4.43 



Total . .107,986 

Ave. . . . 6,000 4.26 

Average cost of feed . . . 



339.42 
322.55 
315.70 
303.55 
292.88 
282.15 
275.23 
252.35 
251.50 
248.65 
237.17 
231.80 
229.55 
215.35 
214.15 
209.16 
208.60 
174.90 

4,604.72 
255.81 



e. Price. 
.323 
.337 
.332 
.33 
.305 
.334 
.337 
.343 
.319 
.327 
.341 
.327 
.323 
.320 
.332 
.323 
.312 
.297 



.314 



Amount. 

$109.70 

109.00 

104.82 

100.32 

89.55 

94.46 

93,10 

80.65 

80.41 

81.37 

81.00 

76.02 

75.20 

70.43 

71.16 

67.64 

65.26 

52.00 

$1,448.09 

80.45 

. $36.65 



Net profit $43.80 

5 3,923 3.0 141.35 .328 46.50 

8 2,000 5.0 103.15 .357 36.84 

"Numbers 5 and 8 are heifers milked six and four and one-tbird 
months respectively. 

"Dallas, Ore." • * * * 

Record of the world's champion cow, Colantha 4th's Johanna, 
from Hoard's Dairyman : 



Test • 

Month Milk. lbs. per cent. Fat lbs. 

Dec, 1906, 9 days G27.8 4.35 27.31 

Januarv, 1907 2,057.5 3.92 104.28 

February 2,677.5 3.83 102.55 

March 3,701.3 3.67 99.14 

April 2,508.7 3.56 ^9.31 

May 2,643.2 3.56 94.10 

June 2,353.7 3.45 81.20 

July 2,235.2 3.37 75.33 

August 1,788.6 3.95 70.65 

Sei)tember 1,756.1 3.69 64.80 

October 2,031.8 3.30 67.05 

November 1,994.8 3.61 72.00 

December— 22 days 1,456.5 3.47 50.54 

Total 27,432.7 3.64 998.26 

"She has the following yearly record made when she was four 
years old: Milk, 19,309.3 lbs.; fat, 693.54 lbs. 

Following are the seven day records made at five, eight, ten and 
eleven months after calving and for periods of one week, under the 
supervision of the Wisconsin College of Agriculture : 

Fat 
Time After Calving Milk, lbs. per cent. Fat lbs. 

Five months 613.0 3.56 21.80 

Eight mouths 378.8 3.95 14.96 

Ten months 468.7 3.40 15.95 

Eleven months 478.6 3.61 17.28 

"The seven day record made eleven months after calving is the 

largest ever made by a cow so far along in the period of lactation. 

In fact, it beats all weekly records made eight months after calving. 

"So far as we know this cow has made a clean sweep of all 

records from the one day to the yearly." 

CHAPTER VIII. 

CKEAM SEPARATION. 

There are three methods of cream separation in common use, 
viz., gravity, dilution and centrifugal. Of these three, gravity is 
the oldest and until very recent years the most widely used method. 
It consists simply in setting the milk in cans or pans and allowing 
the fat to rise to the top, it being forced up by gravity because it is 
so much lighter than the milk serum. In the dilution process cold 
water is poured directly into the milk on the theory that it will 
make the milk thinner and allow the fat globules to rise to the top 
more easily. In the centrifugal process the fat is separated from 
the milk by centrifugal force, that force which causes the mud to 

30 



fly from a rapidly revolving wagon wheel or the water from a grind- 
stone. In this process the milk is run into a rapidly revolving bowl, 
the heavier parts crowd to the outside and the fat or cream is forced 
toward the center and each is crowded out through little holes 
into spouts provided for the purpose of carrying them into their 
respective vessels. Of these three methods centrifugal separation is 
the most efficient. 

One of the reasons why dairying, before the invention of the 
Babcock test and the centrifugal separator, was unprofitable is 
because of the large losses of butter fat in the skim milk separated 
by the gravity process. No matter how careful the dairyman may 
be to secure a low temperature, the one most favorable to good 
separation by the gravity process, the skim milk losses are seldom 
less than one per cent and often much more than that. Skim milk 
from Jersey cows separated by the gravity process has been tested 
and repeatedly found to contain three per cent of butter fat. Exten- 
sive experiments conducted by the Cornell Station sliow an average 
of over one per cent of fat in the skim milk when the whole milk 
was set in water at a temperature of 60 degrees F. Since this one 
per cent represents from one-fourth to one-third of all the fat in 
average milk, this needless waste may easily change a profit into a 
loss. To illustrate : Suppose a cow produces 300 pounds of butter 
fat in a year. This is worth at 25c per pound, the sum of $50. If it 
costs $40 to feed this cow for a year, the farmer's net profit on her, 
if all the fat is saved, is just $10. Now, suppose one-fourth of it 
be lost in creaming it by the gravity procress, the remainder is 
worth just $37.50, or $2.50 less than the cost of keeping the cow. 
In the old-fashioned method of dairying this was too often the case. 
This loss the centrifugal separator has saved and the Babcock test 
has revealed the facts in the case. Little wonder it is that dairy- 
ing is growing so rapidly into popular favor. 

Dilution methods of sejiaration are likewise to be condemned 
as extravagant and wasteful. 

A few years ago dilution methods and appliances were on the 
"boom," but fortunately this "boom" was of short duration. Cor- 
nell and many of the other experiment stations investigated the 
dilution methods and compared them with the old fashioned grav- 
ity methods. The average fat content of the skim milk by the dilu- 
tion process was found to be three-fourths of one per cent when set 
at 60 degrees F. This is about one-fifth of the entire fat content of 
the whole milk. At the Kansas station still greater losses were 
found to exist, the average being one per cent or equal to that sep- 
arated by the gravity process. Even the much advertised Cooley 

31 



system showed an average of one per cent in the Cornell ex- 
periments. 

Drawing showing relative fat losses in skim milk when separated 
by (A) gravity, (B) dilution, and (C) centrifugal processes. 

A B C 



I I I I I ~T-T 



Against these wasteful methods we should place the skim milk 
tests of the centrifugal separator. Many have repeatedly tested the 
skim milk of these machines, both hand and power, and have rarely 
found it to contain .10 of one per cent, often so low as .03 of one 
per cent when tested by the Babcock test. In the Cornell experi- 
ments just referred to the average loss was from one- to two-tenths 
per cent, varying with the different conditions and the different 
styles of machines used. A good separator when not crowded and 
run at the proper speed with milk at the right temperature should 
not show to exceed one-tenth of one per cent of fat in the skim 
milk by the Babcock test. This is the chief reason for the rapid 
rise of the dairy industry since 1879, the year in which the centrifu- 
gal separator was invented. 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE FARM SEPARATOR. 

If the farmer is so remote from a factory that he finds it impos- 
sible to haul his milk there, he may make use of the farm separator 
to advantage. In the western states many farmers own and operate 
separators, hence a word about the principles upon which their 
operation is based and some general directions for their care and 
use may not be out of place here. 

As was stated in the preceding chapter, their operation depends 
on centrifugal force. The old fashioned "sling-shot" serves to illus- 
trate this principle. In this plaything a stone is placed in a little 
hole cut in a piece of leather to which are attached two strings. 
The "shot" is then whirled rapidly around the head and one of the 
strings suddenly loosened when tlie stone flies off in a straight line. 
The boy who is able to whirl his sling-shot with the greatest speed 
succeeds in throwing his stone the farthest, that is he gives to it the 
greatest force. Now, in the cream separator the builders have 
figured out just how rapidly the bowls must rotate in order to 
throw the skim milk all to the outside and force the fat globules to 
the center. The separator must, therefore, be kept up to this cal- 

32 



culated speed if the separation is to be complete. This speed is 
usually plainly marked on the machine and the operator should see 
to it that the indicated speed is maintained. 

There are two types of machines on the mai'ket, the disc and 
the hollow bowl. In the disc machine the milk is separated in thin 
layers and for this reason a slower speed may be maintained. In 
the bowl machine there are fewer parts and therefore the ma- 
chine is easier to clea.n, but it necessitates a much higher speed 
to separate the larger volume of milk. This increased speed means 
more power and in some cases it may mean danger from the burst- 
ing of the rapidly revolving bowl. However, the bowl type of 
machine is being greatly improved and a style may yet be produced 
that is not open to any of the above objections. 

Another conditiou which affects the completeness of the separa- 
tion is temperature. The best machines will not do close work on 
cold milk. The most favorable temperature for the farmer to use 
is from 90 degrees F. to 100 degrees F., or the temperature of milk 
when it is first drawn from the cow. In no case should the milk 
be allowed to cool or the cream to rise before separation. If the 
milk is cold the fat losses are large and the machine is easily 
clogged. If the cream has risen it may be churned in the machine 
and the small granules of butter will be lost. It is a good practice 
to run a quart of warm water through the machine to warm it up 
before the milk is put into it. 

To secure the best results and the cleanest and most nearly per- 
fect cream, it is best to wash the separator each time after it is 
used. The slime should be removed, and the parts thoroughly 
scalded to destroy the germs which are certain to be present. These 
germs are found in large quantities in the bowl and if not de- 
stroyed by heat may cause serious damage to the cream. The sep- 
arator should be washed twice daily and it should be thoroughly 
scalded and dried in the sun. Heat and sunlight are death to germ 
life. 

All bearings should be kept thoroughly oiled with the best 
separator oil. It is poor economy indeed to spoil a good machine 
by using poor oil. Some separators that are still doing good work 
have been known, to be in constant use for fifteen years. This is 
because the machines have been well cared for. 



33 



CHAPTER X. 

A^\LUE OF SKIM MILK. 

When the milk is separated from the cream either at the farm 
or at the factory, the farmer has, as a by-product of dairying, a 
quantity of skim milk which is one of the very best of feeds for 
calves, pigs and even chickens, ducks and geese. In some localities 
there is a strong prejudice against the introduction of the centrifu- 
gal separator on the ground that the skim milk is spoiled for feed. 
This prejudice is wholly unfounded and clearly disproven by the 
experience of both dairymen and investigators. In the first place 
none of the food substances are removed from the milk but the 
fat, and this fat can easily be supplied by a much cheaper 
substitute. Butter fat is worth, say 30 cents per pound. Two or 
three cents' worth of oil meal will furnish as much food matter as 
a pound of butter fat. Then all that the dairyman has to do is 
to add a few pounds of oil meal to each one hundred pounds of 
skim milk and its feeding value is just as great as new or whole 
milk. When the milk is separated on the farm this skim milk may 
be fed warm and sweet soon after it is drawn from the cow and if 
oil meal, bran, middlings, gluten feed, or some other cheap feed 
rich in oil and protein is added to it in proper proportions, it isj 
fully the equal of whole milk as a feeding stuff. Experiments with 
hand fed calves carried on at the Kansas Experiment Station have 
conclusively demonstrated this fact. Good "baby beef" Avas made 
with separator skim milk as a foundation feed, and the calves so 
fed made greater gains at a less cost than those fed on whole milk. 
The same results were obtained at the Iowa station. 



w 








9* 








8* 








7^ 








6* 














5* 


















4^ 
























3^ 


























2* 


























i" 



























Drawing showing the relation botwoen the protein content of (A) 
lOf) lbs. of skim milk and a bushel of (B) oats, (C) corn, (D) barley, 
(E) peas, (F) rye, and .50 lbs. each of (G) bran, (H) middlings, (I) 
brewers' grains, and (J) clover hay. 

34 



The Nebraska and Missouri station records show similar results, 
and, if further confirmation is needed, one has only to glance at the 
composition of milk to know that there are over nine pounds of the 
very best food solids, all easily digestible, left in every hundred 
pounds of milk after the fat has been removed. Now, to restore the 
feeding value it is only necessary to substitute for the fat an equal 
amount of digestible nutrients. This, five or six pounds of any of 
the protein foods mentioned above, will do. 

Skim milk is especially valuable in hog raising, and it should 
form the basis of food for these animals on every dairy farm. Some 
farmers believe that the best and cheapest pork is made from corn 
alone with nothing but water to drink. Here again experimenters 
have proven that this is not the case. On the contrary, pork pro- 
duced from this diet is much more expensive than that produced 
from any kind of mixed feeds. But the largest profit in hog rais- 
ing comes from young pork six or seven months old. The first one 
hundred pounds of pork is always the cheapest to produce, the sec- 
ond hundred pounds is a little more costly, and so on until after 
the hog is a year old and has been well fed up to this time, the 
feed necessary to produce a pound of pork is actually worth more 
than the pork produced. The farmer, then, makes the most money 
on pig-pork, and pig-pork cannot be produced to advantage without 
milk. Skim milk mixed with ground corn, ground oats, bran, oil 
meal, middlings, or gluten feed, and supplemented during the fat- 
tening period with a liberal allowance of corn, makes the very best 
and cheapest pork. 

CHAPTER XL 

THE BAEN. 

There are two buildings that the dairy farmer cannot well get 
along without. A good, clean, well ventilated barn in which to 
house his herd, and one or more silos in which to store a supply 
of palatable green food for the winter months. 

But little need be said about the construction of the barn. The 
careful farmer will adapt the barn to the size of the farm, the 
number of cows kept thereon, the kind of grain and roughage 
stored for food, and other local conditions. He will undoubtedly 
be able to draw his own plans, or to secure someone to design a barn 
for him that will suit his own special needs better than any plan 
which the writer can suggest. But there is one feature of barn con- 
struction so greatly neglected that it deserves to be mentioned in 
every treatise on dairy farming. This important feature is ven- 
tilation. 

35 



In our efforts to provide warm and comfortable qu^ters for our 
stock we have overlooked, in many cases, the most important matter 
of all — proper ventilation. As we enter some stables on a winter's 
morning, after the barn has been closed all night, we are almost 
stifled by the odors and impurities which fill the air. These must 
necessarily be very harmful to the animals that are forced to breathe 
them over and over again. In such stables no provision is made for 
admitting fresh air or for withdrawing that which has become 
charged with impurities and robbed of its life-giving oxygen. Oxy- 
gen is the one air element al^solutely necessary to all animal life. 
We ourselves know only too well the debilitating effect of breathing 
bad air. The respiratory organs of animals are very similar to our 
own and they too must suffer from the bad effects of breathing 
impure air. Without doubt the alarming prevalence of tuberculosis 
among dairy cattle is largely due to this cause. Hence this neg- 
lected feature of barn construction is deemed worthy of detailed 
mention in this book. 

On the farm of Ex-Governor W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin, editor 
of Hoard's Dairyman, and one of the best authorities on dairying 
in the world, may be seen a barn perfect in its ventilation. In 
this barn the air is as pure and fresh and as free from bad odors 
as it is in the most sanitary home. The method of ventilation in 
use in this barn is known as the King system, and it is so perfect 
in its operation, so inexpensive, and so easy to install that no up- 
to-date dairy barn should be built without this or a similar system 
of ventilation. 




Drawing showing two niotliods of drawing off the had air from the 
dairy harn. In the figure at the right the hest method of admitting 
fresh air is shown. 



36 




Interior view of a modern, sanitary dairy Isarn wliere certifled milk 
is produced. Notice tiie cement floors and the boards placed on the 
cement for the cows to lie on. 




A method for tying cows; used frequently in up-to-date barns. 



37 



In this system air is taken in on the outside of the Ij&rn near the 
ground, passes up through an air space in the walls made in the 
form of a wooden box, and is admitted into the barn near the ceil- 
ing. This method of admitting the air prevents draughts and forces 
the bad air to the floor where it is drawn out through ventilating 
flues that extend from one foot of the floor to above the roof of the 
barn. It is important that these flues reach nearly to the floor, oth- 
erwise the warm air of the barn which is to be found near the ceil- 
ing, and not the bad air, which is to be found near the floor, will be 
drawn ofl'. These ventilating flues may be made from wood or from 
galvanized iron, tin or sheet iron pipe. A single flue 2x2 feet, inside 
measure, is said to be sufficient for twenty cows. The intake flues 
should be of the same capacity.-!, If two or more smaller flues are 
used, which in the judg-ment of iJie writer is to be preferred, their 
combined capacity should be the same as that of the larger flue. 
If more than twenty cows are to be stabled the size of the ventilating 
flues should be increased proportionately. 

This system was designed by Professor King of Madison, Wis- 
consin, hence its name, and has found widespread adoption. 

Fresh air is necessary to the health of the stock. „So, too, is 
light. It is well known that sunlight will destroy germ life. The 
dairyman while providing proper ventilation should also provide fdr 
admitting an al)undance of sunlight into his liarn". Fresh air and 
plenty of sunlight are the surest means of preventing germ diseases 
in the dairy herd. 

CHAPTER XII. 

THE SILO. 

The silo is the one farm building that needs the ,most careful 
construction. The importance of silage as a feeding stuff is grow- 
ing more apparent as dairying advances. Nature has provided in 
summer proper food for most farm animals, and the nearer summer 
conditions can be maintained throughout the year the greater will 
be the farmer's success. Hence the importance of silage as a feed- 
ing stuff. It is a green feed preserved in its natural condition, or 
nearly so, for winter feeding. As soon as the pasture gets short in 
the fall the silo may be opened and feeding of ensilage begun. In 
this way there need be little if any diminution in the flow of milk. 

But the silage will not keep well in a poorly constructed silo. 
Whatever the type of silo the farmer chooses to build, four things 
must be observed : It must be strong, as nearly air tight as possible, 
perfectly smooth on the inside, and placed on a strong, solid foun- 
dation. 

38 



The silo must be almost air ti^ht because the air contains germs 
that will set to work upon the silage and cause it to spoil and decay 
if the air is not excluded. Silage is something like canned fruit 
in this respect. The silo must be strong because the green feed with 
which it is filled is very heavy and packs down very solidly. This 
exerts a tremendous pressure which will spring or burst the walls 
of a poorly constructed silo and admit the air, causing the silage to 
spoil. It should be perfectly smooth on the inside because the silage 
should settle evenly. Projections or rough places on the inner 
walls of a silo will prevent the even settling and cause dead air 
spaces which will spoil the silage. It must rest on a strong, solid 
foundation because the side pressure and weight at the bottom are 
very great. This pressure may be so great as to burst a heavy stone 
wall, and the great weight will cause a silo placed on a poor foun- 
dation to settle out of shape and crack the walls. 




Drawing showing general plan for the construction of a double wall 
silo with dead air space between, stone foundation, cement floor, venti- 
lator on top and feeding and filling doors on opposite sides. 

39 



If this building is so constructed as to provide for sufficient 
ventilation and to prevent freezing, and proper care is used in filling 
the silo, the silage will be found to be one of the most satisfactory 
feeds for dairy cows, especially when winter dairying is pursued. 

There are four types of silos in common use, wood, brick, stone 
and cement, but they are all built on the same general plan. A 
hole four or five feet deep is dug in the ground. The bottom of 
this hole is covered with a layer of concrete and cement and the 
sides walled up for a foot or two above the top with a heavy stone 
wall, at least two feet thick. On top of this wall the silo is built 
in two thicknesses of whatever material is used, with a dead air 
space between. The filling doors open to the outside, and the feed- 
ing doors open into the barn. A ventilator is placed on top, and 
the walls are strengthened with hoops, rods or iron bands. In 
warmer climates where there is slight danger from frost, another 
type known as the stave silo is used. This is very much like a large 
barrel, and the cost of building such a silo is considerably less than 
the double wall type. 

CHAPTER XIII. 

FEED FOE THE COW. 

The cow may be compared to a machine. When we stop to 
consider that the real purpose of the cow from the dairyman's 
standpoint is to produce milk, in the same way that the purpose 
of a machine is to produce some given article, we are justified in 
making the comparison. We give the cow a certain quantity of food 
and from this we expect her to maintain herself and at the same 
time convert a good share of the food into milk. Good dairymen 
realize that the profit comes from the excess of food that she con- 
sumes over and above that required for her bodily maintenance. 

Investigators have found that the daily maintenance ration of 
a cow weighing about one thousand pounds is : .7 lbs. digestible 
protein, 8.0 lbs. digestible carbohydrates, and 0.1 lb. ether extract. 

Granting that the above is true we can easily see that a dairy- 
man, in order to get profit from his herd must give each cow more 
than the above maintenance ration before he can expect her to 
return a profit to him. It would be a foolish engineer that would 
only turn on steam sufficient to keep his engine moving, when it is 
at his disposal to give it all the steam necessary to work it to its 
full capacity. The engineer, therefore, takes into consideration the 
size of the engine, the particular type of engine, and the work to 
be performed. So, too, must the dairyman take into consideration 
the size of the cow, her individuality and also the particular type 

40 



'rotein 
Lbs. 


Digestible NutiiVtits 
Carbohy- Ether Nutri- 
d rates Extract five 
l>bs. Lbs. Ratio 


l.G 


10.0 .3 1 :6.7 


2.0 


11.0 .4 1 :6.0 


2.5 


13.0 .5 1 :5.7 


3.3 


13.0 .8 1 :4.5 


.7 


8.0 .1 1:11.8 



of cow. A three-year-old heifer cannot be expected to be as pro- 
ductive as a cow several years older. A good type of cow will do 
better work than a poor type, in the same way that a Corliss engine 
will produce more power from a given amount of steam than a 
common slide valve engine. Inasmuch as the individual require- 
ments of the animal must be given some weight by a good dairyman 
it can readily be seen that herd feeding is not advisable or profit- 
able. It would be foolish for a dairyman, if he expects to get the 
best results from his cows, to feed all the cows in the herd the same 
way, regardless of whether they are giving 15, 20 or 30 lbs. of milk 
per day. This may be best emphasized by calling attention to the 
standard rations used in this connection all over the world. These 
are suggested by the eminent German authorities, Wolff-Lehman, as 
the result of their investigations. 

Wolff-Lehmann Modified Standards. 

Dry 

Matter 

Lbs. 

1. When giving 11 Ib^. of milk daily. .25.0 

2. When giving ICy, lbs of milk daily. .27.0 

3. When giving 22 lbs. of milk daily. .29.0 

4. When giving 271/2 lbs. of milk daily. 32.0 
Standard maintenance ration 18.0 

In looking over this table the reader will at once notice that 
the cow receives more feed when she is giving a larger quantity of 
milk, especially is the proportional increase greater in protein than 
in carbohydrates. The reason for this is very evident; protein is 
a very essential part of all foods. It is, in fact, that part which de- 
termines its value as a food ; it is the nitrogenous part or that which 
is necessary for the formation of muscles of the body, casein in 
milk, etc. It is also argued by some that it is one of the sources 
of fat in milk. Such feeds as clover, alfalfa, bran, and gluten con- 
tain a great deal of protein, and for this reason they are very de- 
sirable feeds. Carbohydrates are found in more or less abundance 
in all feed and are easier to obtain than protein. Their chief prop- 
erty is the maintaining of the heat of the body. Starches and 
sugars are good examples of this class of feeds. 

Ether extract, so called because this element is extracted by 
ether when an examination of food is made under chemical analysis, 
is, in homely language, the fat of the feed. The principal property 
of this part of the food is similar to that of carbohydrates, that is 
to maintain temperature. However, a pound of ether extract has 
within it the elements of more heat than a pound of carbohydrates. 
It is customary to say that one pound of ether extract has from 
2.2 to 2.5 times the heat energy of a pound of carbohydrates. 

41 



In compounding a ration it is customary to estimatg the amount 
of dry matter in the feed, that is, the amount that the feed would 
weigh if all the water it contained was driven off by heat. Sim- 
ilarly it is necessary to estimate the amounts of protein, carbohy- 
drates and ether extract. There are several things, however, that 
must be taken into consideration. A good share of the protein is 
not digestible and therefore the animal may be charged with 
receiving protein which she cannot use. We are indebted to Prof. 
W. A. Henry for the use of the following tables, taken from his 
work, "Feeds and Feeding" : 

TABLE I. 
Water and total nutrients per 100 pounds feed. 

Crude Nitrogen Ether 

Feeding: StuflEs Water Protein Fiber Free Extract 

Roughage Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Extract Lbs. 

Corn stover, field cured 40.5 3.8 19.7 31.5 1.1 

Red clover hay 1.5.3 12.3 24.8 38.1 3.3 

Timothy hay 13.2 5.9 29.0 45.0 2.5 

Oat straw 9.2 4.0 37.0 42.4 2.3 

Concentrates. 

Corn, dent lO.G 10.3 2.2 70.4 5.0 

Oats 11.0 11.8 9.5 59.7 5.0 

Wheat bran 11.9 15.4 9.0 58.9 4.0 

Linseed meal, O. P 9.2 32.9 8.9 35.4 7.9 

TABLE II. 
Percentage Digestibility of Nutrients. 

Nitrogen 
Feeding Stuffs Dry Crude Free Ether 

Roughage Matter Protein Fiber Extr. Extr 

Corn stover in all varieties CR) 45 07 Gl 02 

Red clover hay 55 55 4G 64 53 

Timothy hav 57 48 52 63 57 

Oat straw 48 30 54 44 33 

Concentrates. 

Corn 91 7G 58 93 86 

Oats 70 78 20 76 83 

Wheat bran Gl 79 22 69 68 

Linseed meal, O. P 79 89 57 78 89 

TABLE III. 

Total digestible substances in 
Total 100 Pounds 

Feeding Stuffs Dry Carbohy- Ether ~: Nutritive 

Roughage Matter Protein drates Extract Ratio 

Corn stover 59.5 1.7 .32.4 0.7 1 :20.0 

Red clover hay 84.7 G.8 35.8 1.7 1 : 5.8 

Timothy hay 8G.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 1 :16.7 

Oat straw 90.8 1.2 38.G 0.8 1:33.7 

Corn or corn mea^l 89.4 7.8 GG.7 4.3 1 : 9.8 

Oats 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2 1:6.2 

Wheat bran 88.1 12.2 39.2 2.7 1:3.7 

Oil meal, O. P 90.8 29.3 32.7 7.0 1: 1.7 

42 



In the above, attention may be called to the total protein, con- 
tent of wheat bran, which is 15.4 pounds per 100 pounds of the 
feed. In the second table it will be learned that 79 per cent of the 
15.4 pounds is digestible, leaving in all, as will be noticed in the 
last table, only 12.3 pounds, the total protein available for the 
animal. 

Notice, also, oat straw. It contains, as is shown in the first 
table, 4.0 per cent of protein, only 30 per cent, as shown in the 
second table, is digestible, or, in other words, 100 pounds of oat 
straw contains only 1.2 pounds of digestible protein. The value 
of knowing the amount of digestible nutrients the feed contains 
cannot be overestimated. 

It may be cited that certain feeds, such as oat straw, are so 
deficient in nourishment that it would be necessary for a cow to 
eat two or three hundred pounds of the same in order to furnish 
her body with sufficient nourishment so that it would be able to 
secrete twenty to twenty-four pounds of milk a day. This, of 
course, is an impossibility, but is mentioned to show that a cow 
cannot be turned out to a straw stack with the expectation that her 
flow of milk will increase. 

On the other hand it is well known that a pasture is about as 
good a ration as we ordinarily find, and for this reason cows 
usually give a large flow of milk during June and July because 
all the elements necessary to maintain the body and manufacture 
the milk are found in succulent pasture grass. 

When we speak of a balanced ration we mean a ration where 
the protein, carbohydrates and ether extracts are in about the right 
proportion. The eminent German authorities, Wolff and Lehmann, 
adopted a standard whereby every cow yielding twenty-two pounds 
of milk daily should receive a ration containing 29 pounds of dry 
matter, of which 2.5 pounds should be digestible protein, 13 pounds 
digestible carbohydrates, and .5 pound digestible ether extract. 
The nutritive ratio which they adopted was 1 :5.7. 

The matter of computing the nutritive ratio is not so difficult 
as one might believe, and may be briefly explained as follows: 
Multiply the digestible ether extract by 2.4 (inasmuch as it is pre- 
sumed that each pound of ether extract furnishes 2.4 times the heat 
units that are foimd in one pound of carbohydrates), add to this 
the digestible carbohydrates, and divide the sum by the digestible 
protein in the food. In the above multiplying .5 by 2.4 we get 1.2; 
adding 1.2 to 13.0 we get the sum 14.2; dividing this by 2.5 we 
get 5.7. The ratio of the protein, therefore, to the other constit- 
uents is 1 :5.7, or 1 part of protein to every 5.7 parts of carbo- 
hydrates or their equivalent. 

43 



To better illustrate how to formulate a ration anck to show that 
it is not so difficult but that it can be learned by any dairyman of 
ordinary intelligence, we will assume that the farmer is located 
somewhere in the central part of the United States, and has the 
following feeds at his disposal, timothy, clover, corn, oats and 
bran, from which to calculate a ration for his cows. The following 
is a table of the digestible nutrients in the feeds named : 

TABLE IV. 

Digestible Nutrients in 100 Lbs. 
Dry Matter Carbohy- Ether 

Feed in 100 Lbs. Protein drates Extract 

Timothy 86.8 2.8 43.4 1.4 

Alsike clover 90.3 8.4 42.5 1.5 

Corn 89.1 7.9 66.7 4.3 

Oats 89.0 9.2 47.3 4.2 

Bran 88.1 12.2 39.2 2.7 

The first thing a dairyman must do is to compute a trial ration. 
Suppose he wants to feed a milch cow 10 pounds of timothy, 10 
pounds of clover, 8 pounds of corn and 2 pounds of oats. He will 
then calculate the ration as follows : 

TABLE V. 
Timothy Hay 

86.8^100X10=8.68 Dry Matter. 

2.8-=- 100X10= .28 Protein. 
43.4H-100X 10=4.34 Carbohydrates. 
1.4-=- 100X10= .14 Ether Extract. 
Alsilve Clover 

90.3-=-100X 10=9.03 Dry Matter. 

8.4^100X10= .84 Protein. 
42.5^100X 10=4.25 Carbohydrates. 
1.5-M00X10= .15 Ether Extract. 
Corn 
89.1^-100X8=7.128 Dry Matter. 

7.7^100X8= .632 Protein. 
66.7^100X8=5.336 Carbohydrates. 
4.3-M0OX8= .34 Ether Extract. 

Oats 
83.04-100X2=1.78 Dry Matter. 

9.2-=-100X2= .184 Protein. 
47.3^100X2= .946 Carbohydrates. 
4.2-f- 100X2= .084 
Summarizing the foregoing he obtains the following: 
TABLE VI. 

Digestible Nutriments 
Dry Carbohy- Ether 

Feed Matter Protein drates Extract 

Timothy hay, 10 lbs 8.68 .28 4.34 .14 

Alsike clover hay, 10 lbs 9.03 .84 4.25 .15 

Corn, 8 lbs 7.128 .632 5.336 .34 

Oats, 2 lbs 1.78 .184 .946 .084 

Trial ration 26^18 ]L936~ T4.872 7714 

Wolff- Lehman standard 2aO ZE 13.0 i50~ 

44 





Carbohy- 


Ether 


rotein 


drates 


Extract 


.28 


4.34 


.14 


.84 


4.25 


.15 


.316 


2.668 


.17 


.184 


.946 


.084 


.488 


1.568 


.108 



In comparing the trial ration with that of the standard of Wolff 
and Lehmann ration for a cow producing 22 pounds of milk, he 
will find quite a deficiency in protein, and, in order to correct this 
he can reduce the corn ration to 4 pounds and give the animal 4 
pounds additional bran. The ration will then read as follows : 



TABLE VII. 

Dry 
Feed Matter 

Timothy hay, 10 lbs 8.68 

Alsike clover hay, 10 lbs 9.03 

Corn, 4 lbs 3.564 

Oats, 2 lbs 1.78 

Bran, 4 lbs 3.524 

Trial ration 26.578 2.108 13.772 .652 

Wolff-Lehman standard 21X0 2.5 13. .50 



In the revised trial ration the protein is a little low and the 
nutritive ratio is only 1 :7.2, rather than 1 :5.7. We must take into 
consideration that the standard given is the standard set by German 
investigators and that many American authorities claim that 1 :5.7 
is entirely too narrow a ration to suit American conditions. Some 
of the American authorities believe that instead of 2.5 pounds of 
protein a cow giving 22 pounds of milk daily should receive about 
2.1 pounds of protein. 

The dairyman therefore can easily compute the amount of feed 
that each cow should receive per day; and can also compute the 
cost of this feed. By formulating several rations he can easily 
calculate the rations that will cost him the least and in this way 
he is able to save a great deal of money. 

There is no subject connected with dairying which the interested 
farmer can study with more profit to himself than that of feeding 
the dairy cow. It is impossible in so brief a work as this to more 
than mention what can be done, but we suggest that the book pub- 
lished by Professor W. A. Henry of the Wisconsin Experiment 
Station at Madison, should be in the possession of those in any 
way connected with the feeding of dairy cows. There is no other 
book available on the subject that is so practical and at the same 
time so complete. 

Herewith we append a list of the common feeds found in 
America, which may be used for reference. The table shows the 
dry matter and the digestible nutrients per 100 lbs. feeding stuff. 
The data for the same is taken from "Feeds and Feeding :" 

45 



Protein 
Lbs. 


Carbohy- 
drates 
Lbs. 


Ether 

Extract 

Lbs. 


7.9 


66.7 


4.3 


25.8 


43.3 


11.0 


10.2 


69.2 


1.7 


12.2 


39.2 


2.7 


12.2 


50.0 


3.6 


9.9 


67.6 


1.1 


11.5 


50.3 


2.0 


11.9 


45.1 


1.6 


8.7 


65.6 


1.6 


18.6 


37.1 


1.7 


15.7 


36.3 


5.1 


9.2 


47.3 


4.2 


7.0 


52.1 


3.1 


7.8 


57.1 


2.7 


8.9 


45.0 


3.2 


20.6 


17.1 


29.0 


29.3 


32.7 


7.0 


28.2 


40.1 


2.8 


37.2 


16.9 


12.2 


16.8 


51.8 


0.7 


29.6 


22.3 


14.4 


18.3 


54.2 


1.1 



TABLE VIII. 

Dry 
Matter 
Concentrates Lbs. 

Corn, all analyses 89.1 

Gluten meal 91.8 

Wheat 89.5 

Wheat bran 88.1 

Wheat shorts 88.2 

Rye 88.4 

Rye bran 88.4 

Rye shorts 90.7 

Barley 89.1 

Malt sprouts 89.8 

Brewer's grains, dried 91.8 

Oats 89.0 

Sorghum seed 87.2 

Kaffir corn 84.8 

Millet 86.0 

Flax seed 90.8 

Linseed meal, old process 90.8 

Linseed meal, new process 89.9 

Cotton-seed meal 91.8 

Peas 89.5 

Soy bean 89.2 

Cow peas 85.2 

Roughage. 

Fodder corn, field cured 57.8 2.5 34.6 1.2 

Corn stover, husked shock corn, 

field cured 59.5 

Pasture grasses (mixed) 20.0 

Hay. 

Timothy 86.8 

Orchard grass 90.1 

Redtop 91.1 

Kentucky blue grass 78.8 

Oat hay 91.1 

Strmv. 

Wheat 90.4 

Oat 90.8 

Legume hay and straw. 

Red clover, medium 84.7 

Red clover, mammoth 78.8 

Alsike clover 90.3 

Crimson clover 90.4 

Alfalfa 91.0 

Cow peas 89.3 

Pea vine straw 86.4 

Silage. 

Corn 20.9 

Clover 28.0 

Alfalfa 27.5 

46 



1.7 


32.4 


0.7 


2.5 


10.2 


0.5 


2.8 


43.4 


1.4 


4.9 


42.3 


1.4 


4.8 


46.9 


1.0 


4.8 


37.3 


2.0 


4.3 


46.4 


1.5 


0.4 


36.3 


0.4 


1.2 


38.6 


0.8 


6.8 


35.8 


1.7 


5.7 


. 32.0 


1.9 


8.4 


42.5 


1.5 


10.5 


34.9 


1.2 


11.0 


39.6 


1.2 


10.8 


38.6 


1.1 


4.3 


32.3 


0.8 


0.9 


11.3 


0.7 


2.0 


13.5 


1.0 


3.0 


8.5 


1.9 



Roots and tuhers. 

Potato 21.1 0.9 16.3 0.1 

Beet, common 13.0 1.2 8.8 0.1 

Beets, sugar 13.5 1.1 10.2 0.1 

Beet, mangel 9.1 1.1 5.4 0.1 

Rutabaga 11.4 1.0 8.1 0.2 

Miscellaneous. 

Cabbage 15.3 1.8 8.2 0.4 

Beet pulp 10.2 O.G 7.3 .0 

Cows' milk 12.8 3.6 4.9 3.7 

Cows' milk, colostrum 25.4 17.0 2.7 3.6 

Skim milk, gravity 0.6 3.1 4.7 0.8 

Skim milk, centrifugai 9.4 3.9 5.2 0.3 

Buttermilk 9.9 3.9 4.0 1.3 

Whey OM 0.8 4.7 0.1 

CHAPTER XIV. 

RELATION OF DAIEYING TO THE SOIL. 

Progressive farmers have learned that exclusive grain farming 
does not pay in the long run, and they have gone into dairying and 
prospered. Now, why is dairy farming so much better? Because 
the grain and hay raised on the farm are fed there and find their 
way back to the soil in the form of barnyard manure. Very little 
soil matter is sold from the farm in dairy farming. Professor W. 
H. Dexter says: "The maintenance of soil fertility constitutes one 
of the greatest opportunities for dairying. A ton of wheat worth 
$22 removes from the farm $7.50 worth of plant food. A ton of 
butter worth $500 removes less than fifty cents worth of plant food 
from the farm." A little calculation will show that the amount of 
fertilizer contained in the manure produced annually by a dairy 
cow is worth nearly twenty dollars, if it is carefully saved and 
returned again to the land. 

Again, the wise dairy farmer raises much clover, alfalfa, cow- 
peas or soy beans for forage plants. These plants are legumes and 
have associated with them microscopic germs called bacteria which 
live in little nodules on the roots of these plants. To convince 
yourself of this fact, pull up any one of the above mentioned plants 
and examine its roots for these nodules. They are not always 
to be found, but Usually can be. Now, what is the use of these 
germs? The soil contains but small quantities of nitrogen, a sub- 
stance without which no plant can grow, no animal thrive, indeed, 
no life exist. This small quantity of nitrogen is combined in the 
soil with other elements in a form readily soluble in water, and in 
this dissolved condition finds its way into the plant through 
the roots. It is then built into the body of the plant. Animals 
get all their nitrogen from the plants on which they feed, and the 

47 



plants get theirs from this small store of nitrogen in4he soil. The 
air is four-fifths nitrogen, but, strangely enough, neither plants 
nor animals can make use of this abundant supply of "free" nitro- 
gen, as it is called. But the little germs living in the nodules c^^' 
the roots of clover and other legumes, can and do make use of this 
"free" nitrogen of the air. They take it and combine it with other 
substances and store it up in these nodules in much the same 
manner as the honey-bee stores up his supply of honey for the time 
of need. The clover plant then robs the nodules of their stored-up 
nitrogen and incorporates it into its own tissues. From the clover 
it is passed on to the dairy cow, finds its way into the milk pail, 
serves as food for pigs and calves and is ultimately returned again 
to the soil in the form of l^arnyard manure. Thus it Avill be seen 
that the use of clover, alfalfa and other legumes actually adds to the 
store of nitrogen in the soil and the dairy farmer, instead of ex- 
hausting the nitrogen in his soil finds it, imder his intelligent man- 
agement, continually improving. 

It should be mentioned in this connection, however, that legumes 
do not add potash or phosphoric acid to the soil, but like every 
other plant, remove these substances. But since nitrogen is the 
substance soonest exhausted from almost every soil, and since the 
legumes raised on the farm are usually fed there, these plants may 
be said to maintain the fertility of the soil. 

In determining upon the kind of dairying to be pursued, the 
farmer must be governed by conditions. Whether to sell his milk 
or to make it into butter or cheese will depend upon his nearness 
to factories and markets, the relative price of milk, butter and 
cheese, and other local conditions. One fact must be constantly 
kept in mind. All kinds of dairying are not equally light on the 
soil. The farmer who sells his milk to consumers takes from his 
farm all the soil elements found in the whole milk. The sale of 
cheese returns a portion of these soil elements in the whey, while 
the sale of butter removes from the farm practically nothing of a 
soil nature. The milk required to produce a ton of butter contains 
450 pounds of fertilizing substances, worth about $45. The cheese 
made from the same amount of milk removes about half as much 
of these substances, while the total amount of soil matter in a 
ton of butter has already been stated to be worth less than fifty 
cents. All else being equal, it is better to make butter than cheese 
for the market as it is so very light on the soil. Again, the skim 
milk is available to feed on the farm, while whey has a much less 
feeding value. 

In order to compare the effect of dairying on the soil with the 
other kinds of farming, let us suppose tliat forty acres of land will 

48 



STip^:)ort ten cows. This is, easily possible, and there are those who 
look forward to the time when they will have a cow to the acre on 
our best dairy farms. Should each cow produce 5,000 pounds of 
milk annually, we would have 50,000 pounds of milk. This amount 
will make on the average 5,000 pounds of cheese or 2,000 pounds 
of butter. It has already been shown that this amount of milk 
if sold from the farm to city consumers, removes about $45 worth 
of fertility, while the 5,000 pounds of cheese contains about $25 
worth, and the ton of butter less than fifty cents worth. If clover 
or any of the other legumes has been raised for feed it has prob- 
ably turned this value in air nitrogen back into the soil, so that 
very little if any of the fertility has been lost. 

Now, what would be the result of raising grain, tobacco, potatoes 
or beets for the market on the same plat of ground? Let ns see. 
The average production of oats, corn, wheat, rye, barley and po- 
tatoes for the United States, according to the year book of the 
Department of Agriculture, is as follows : 

Oats 30 l)u. per acre 

Wheat 14 bn. per acre 

Rye 15 bn. per acre 

Corn 25 bu. per acre 

Barley 25 bu. per acre 

Potatoes 90 bu. per acre 

These averages are low and much less than can ordinarily be 
raised per acre with intelligent farming. But accepting these aver- 
ages for our forty acre farm, we have the following: 

1,200 bushels of oats coutainiug worth of soil fertility .$130.00 

5(>0 bushels of wheat containing worth of soil fertility 125.00 

t)00 bushels of rye containing worth of soil fertility 120.00 

1,000 bushels of corn containing worth of soil fertility 155.00 

1,000 bushels of barley containing worth of soil fertility 145.00 

8,000 bushels of potatoes containing worth of soil fertility 160.00 

If tobacco is grown instead of these, with 1,000 poimds of this 
crop ])er acre, $275 worth of soil fertility is sold, and with ten 
tous of sugar beets per acre (a low estimate) $260 worth of soil 
fertility is removed annually. 

These calculations are based on the average analyses of the 
above products, the average yield for the United States, and the 
present price of commercial fertilizers, viz., nitrogen, 15 cents per 
lb; phosphoric acid, 5 cents per lb., and potash, 5 cents per lb. 
It only requires a careful comparison of the above figures to con- 
vince the thoughtful farmer of the great advantage of dairy farm- 
ing over other lines of agriculture. If it is impossible for the 
farmer to go into dairy farming exclusively he can do the next best 
thing, keep a few cows, raise legumes for feed, engage in diversified 
farming, practice rotation of crops, sell less off the farm and feed 

49 



more on it. In this way he will preserve for himseff more of his 
most valuable asset, the fertilit}^ of the land. 



^325 






hoo 






^275 








^250 








f225 










^200 










H75 














^150 




















fl25 
























»100 
























^75 
























^50 


























»Z5 



























ABCD.EFGHIJKL 
Drawing showing relative value of fertilities removed from a forty 
acre farm when (A) milk, (B) cheese, (C) butter, (D) wheat, (E) 
oats, (F) corn, (G) rye, (H) barley, (I) potatoes, (J) tobacco, (K) 
beets, (L) hay, are sold therefrom. 

CHAPTER XV. 

CAEE OF THE COW. 

One of the cardinal points that a good dairyman will observe 
in handling his cows is regularity in all his work. He will feed 
them at definite hours, and milk them at stated intervals; that 
is, if a cow is milked at six in the morning she should be milked 
at six o'clock at night, the best results being obtained when the 
time between milkings is twelve hours. It may be interesting to 
note that the records show that London receives its poorest milk 
on Monday. This is accounted for by the fact that the farmers 
are not so regular in their work on Sunday as during the rest of 
the week. 

If for any reason it is advisable to change the feed of a herd 
it should be done gradually so that the cows will become accustomed 
to the change and not be affected in any way. For instance, when 
it becomes necessary to begin the feeding of ensilage a very small 
portion should be fed the first time, followed by a gradual increase 
in the amount. In this way cows will not get "off feed" so readily. 
Many dairymen are so skillful that they can keep changing feeds 
from time to time without the cows showing any bad effects. This 
is due to their judicious method of feeding. 

so 



The real purpose of keeping cows is to make a profit, and lie 
is indeed a foolish dairyman who will furnish his cows with the 
best of feed and shelter, and then spoil it all b}^ abusing them. 
If he is at all observing he will note within a very short time that 
it does not pay to abuse or ill-treat a cow. He must remember 
that she is a brute and he is a man, and if she ill-behaves in any 
way it is because she is following the law of nature and is trying 
to protect herself. A cow will hold up her milk because she is not 
in an equable frame of mind ; perhaps she is afraid of punishment. 
Some milker may have clubbed her with a milk stool and she 
remembers it and is nervous. Scolding or loud and excited talk- 
ing also make her nervous. It is needless to remark that chasing 
cows with dogs is not going to improve either the flow of milk or 
its quality. The practice of petting cows is to be commended, as 
they respond to kind and gentle treatment in a way that is profit- 
able for the owner. 

When cows were still in their wild state, nature provided them 
with horns to protect themselves and their offspring. However, 
as the dairyman now protects his herd against the ravages of 
wolves and other wild beasts, these appendages are not necessary 
and should be removed. This can be done in a humane way when 
they are calves and the effect is hardly noticeable. In case a cow 
is purchased that has horns, she should be dehorned as soon as pos- 
sible, both as a protection for her owner and also the members of the 
herd. She will no doubt shrink in flesh at first, the flow of milk 
may be somewhat less, and the test will be apt to drop, but these 
are only temporary effects; in fact she will recover from this 
shrinkage within a week or two and is likely to gain more than she 
lost. Cattle that are dehorned become more docile and will not be 
in constant dread of being hooked by other members of the herd. 
They can be sheltered more conveniently; in fact there are so 
many advantages in dehorning that we cannot urge it too strongly. 

In a previous chapter attention was called to the fact that a 
goodly share of the food provides heat and the maintenance for the 
body. It, therefore, is plain that if the body is not properly pro- 
tected it will take more feed to maintain a cow and for this reason 
if for no other she should be well sheltered. It must be remembered 
that she has not so thick a skin as the steer and not so much 
fat on her body to protect her from the cold. That it is profitable 
to protect her from the weather has been proven over and over 
again. The Indiana Experiment Station conducted a series of ex- 
periments and found that cows required less feed when well housed, 
and that they gave more milk as a result of this care. In fact, 
sheltering three cows for forty-eight days gave an increased pro£t 

51 



of $12.79, or $4.26 for each cow. This is quite an *teiii when a 
lierd of twenty or thirty animals is considered. Just how cows 
should be sheltered depends a great deal on the location of the dairy 
farm, but in another chapter the importance of a good barn is dis- 
cussed, and also the necessity for providing sufficient fresh air and 
plenty of sunlight. 

When sheltered during the winter season, it is very essential 
that cows be given sufficient exercise so that they are kept in a 
liealthy condition. Some dairymen follow the rule that they allow 
their cows to go out of doors on such days as are comfortable 
for a man to walk about the yard for a short period of time 
in his shirt sleeves. For instance, if it should be a cold, rainy, driz- 
zling day there would not be much pleasure for a man to walk about 
the yard without a coat and therefore it would not be advisable for 
him to turn his cows out. If the cow is not protected from rain 
as she should be, it has been demonstrated that the shrinkage of 
milk may be as much as ten per cent, and in case of a storm to 
which the cow is exposed, the shrinkage has been known to reach 
forty per cent. This, as every dairyman knows, is an enormous 
loss and goes to prove that it pays to protect the cows. In summer 
time they should be provided with a shady place where they can 
rest during the heat of the day. In fly time it may be profitable 
for the farmer to keep his cows in the barn during the day. He 
can do this by soiling them, but in case they are put in the barn 
it is well to darken the windows so that the flies will not bother 
them. All dairymen loiow that when flies appear there is a great 
loss in flesh and also a serious dropping off in the milk. For this 
reason it may be well for the farmer to consider keeping his cows 
in the barn altogether during the fly season. It may cause extra 
work, but all told he will be amply repaid in money for the trouble. 
In all his conduct and actions toward his friends, the cows, 
the dairyman will always be governed by the bond of sympatliy that 
should exist between him and the animals in his charge. If he 
follows these instincts he cannot make many serious mistakes in 
his treatment and care of them. He will provide his cows with 
clean, palatable food which they will eat with relish, rather than 
feed which they will eat merely to keep from starving. He will 
provide them with warm water to drink in winter, rather than ice- 
cold water, because he feels he would not like to drink such water 
himself. He will soon learn that it is profitable for him to warm 
the water rather than to send them to the pond where he has 
chopped a few holes in the ice, and expect them to drink sufficiently 
to meet their requirements. Experiment stations have proven that 
shrinkage in milk amounts to about eight per cent when this kind 
of water is supplied. 

52 




Dairy barn on the Wisconsin Experiment grounds, Madison, sliowing 
that art and utility may be combined with little additional expense. 
Note the artistic silo in the foreg-round, above which is placed a large 
water tank. To the left is seen the ventilating- tower used in supplying 
the cow barn underneath with pure, wholesome air. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

CAEE OF UTEJ^SILS. 

Tinware is undoubtedly the most satisfactory material for 
dairy utensils. Wooden vessels are very objectionable, inasmuch as 
the pores of the wood absorb the milk, and, therefore, soon become 
foul. In purchasing vessels those that are durable and well cov- 
ered with tin should be selected. The corners should be flushed 
with solder so that the milk will not have hiding places, thus 
affording an opportunity for germs to grow. All utensils should 
be washed with a brush, as it is far more sanitary than a clotli, 
which will soon become foul in spite of the efforts made to keep 
it clean. Greasy soap powders should be avoided. There are many 
kinds of powder on the market that will dissolve dirt and grease 
and are still sanitary. If nothing better can be obtained either sal 
soda or borax may be used. One of the best purifying agencies that 
the dairyman has is the sunlight. x\fter the vessels are washed 

S3 



they should be exposed to the sunshine and air, awa5^from the dust. 
and placed so that they will drain well. 

In washing tinware it should first be rinsed with cold water to 
remove the milk; it should then be washed with lukewarm water 
and finally scalded or steamed. If this method is followed it is 
very easy to wash the separator. Many dairymen make the mistake 
of flushing the separator with scalding hot water. This will have a 
tendency to cook on the impurities and about the only way that 
they can then be removed is to scrape them off with a knife. Where- 
as, if the separator is flushed with lukewarm water, taken apart and 
cleaned at once, it is not much of a task. It is needless to say that 
the separator should be washed each time it is used. 

It has been proven that if the separator is allowed to stand 
without being washed, the impurities will dry on so that it will 
take considerable time and labor to wash it thoroughly. It is 
labor actually saved to wash the separator twice a day and only 
the separator that receives such care is in sanitary condition for 
future use. 

CHAPTER XVII. 

CARE OF MILK AND CREAM. 

Milk, as it is secreted in the cells of the udder, is germ free. 
If it were possible to get the milk in this condition into germ free 
receptacles and if it could then be kept free from contamination, 
the milk would keep indefinitely. But this is impossible. A few 
germs always work their way up into the cavities of the cistern 
above the teat and multiply enormously, owing to the favorable 
conditions existing there. If this first milk, or foremilk, as it is 
called, is milked into the bucket, the practice of a good many 
milkers, we can see at once that contamination is introduced 
at the very beginning of the milking process. It is advisable to 
throw this foremilk away, and really there is little loss, as it is not 
very rich in fat. 

The problem of the dairyman is to keep the milk from being 
contaminated either by dirt entering into it or by its absorbing 
undesirable odors. It is unnecessary to state that the stables should 
be clean and dry and well ventilated; the health of the animals 
demands it. In Denmark it is customary to whitewash the stables 
four times each year; they have found that it is very profitable to 
do this. Whitewash is odorless and very cheap, and it is a pity 
that dairymen in general do not use it more freely. 

It goes without saying that there should be no cesspools about 
the stable, and the ground under the barn should be well drained. 

54 



Poor drainage cannot help but cause objectionable odors about the 
barn. 

One of the things a dairyman will observe carefully is to do his 
feeding after milking so that the atmosphere will not contain so 
much dust. He will also feed his cows such feeds as ensilage, 
after milking rather than before or during milking time, because 
the odor of these feeds will taint the milk. 

The udder and flanks should be wiped with a damp cloth imme- 
diately before milking so that dust and dirt will not be constantly 
falling into the milk pails. It hias been demonstrated that twenty 
times as much dirt falls into the bucket when the udder is simply 
in a soiled condition as when it is wiped with a damp cloth, and 
one hundred times as much when the udder is dirty as when it 
has been kept clean. 

Cows should have ample bedding, but this bedding should not 
be disturbed immediately before milking, inasmuch as that will 
cause the air to be filled with small particles of dust, a large share 
of which will find its way into the milk bucket. 

The dairyman should always bear in mind that in handling 
milk he is dealing with a food product. Therefore, if any of his 
cows should be diseased or in ill health, or give gargety milk or 
bloody milk, this milk should not be used for human consumption. 
Colostrum milk or the milk which a cow secretes immediately 
after calving should not, of course, be used for four or five days, 
or until the milk has become normal: nor should cows' milk be 
used for the thirty days immediately before calving. 

Taking everything into consideration, probably the best form 
of pail that a dairyman can use is one that is covered, as such a 
pail excludes practically all dirt. It has already been mentioned 
that a dairyman is dealing with a food product, hence the advis- 
ability of providing a clean, sanitary place in the liarn where the 
milk can be held during the time of milking. 

The milk should be strained as soon as possible through several 
thicknesses of cheesecloth. It is advised by some that milk should 
be aerated to remove animal heat and the odors ahso]-1)cd from cer- 
tain feeds. Although much may be said in favor of it, great care 
must be exercised in aerating milk. If a farmer is in doubt whether 
to aerate his milk or to cool it, it would be better for him to cool it 
for the reason that simply aerating will not reduce the temperature 
of the milk sufficiently. Aerating must be done in a very cleanly, 
sweet smelling place, otherwise during this process, the milk will 
absorb undesirable odors. In case the milk is not separated it 
should be cooled down at once, and this can only be done by plac- 
ing the cans in cold water and stirring the milk frequently until 

55 



cold. It is not advisable, of course, to cover the cans tightly, be- 
cause milk will have a better flavor if some of the odors of the 
same are allowed to escape. It is poor policy to pour warm and 
cold milk together for the purpose of cooling the warm milk. 
This should never be done. In case a hand separator is used it is 
not necessary to cool at once, because the separator will do better 
work when the milk is at the temperature it comes from the cow. 

The hand separator is becoming very popular. The advantages 
in using one of these machines, such as the increased value of the 
fresh skim milk and the amount of labor saved in hauling to the 
factory, are so well known that further comment is unnecessary. 
However, many farmers either wilfully or by reason of a lack of 
knowledge utterly neglect to take care of their cream properly and 
in this way bring the hand separator into disrepute. Cream should 
be cooled down at once to prevent its souring. It should be placed 
where the atmosphere is pure and where it will not absorb unde- 
sirable odors. It should be delivered to the factory at least every 
other day, and during the time that it is under the farmer's care 
it should be stirred occasionally. Many think that it is unnecessary 
to cool the cream, inasmuch as the butter maker will have to sour 
it anyway. It must be remembered that he should have control of 
the ripening process in order to make a uniform product from day 
to day. Even if the cream does not become sour, it ought not to 
stand longer than forty-eight hours for the reason that many 
organisms develop in cream held at a low temperature, and unfor- 
tunately such organisms have the property of imparting a very 
bitter flavor to the cream, which in turn is transmitted to the but- 
ter. Cream should be delivered to the factory sweet and clean 
before we have a right to expect the butter maker to place on the 
market an article that will bring the highest cash price. 

There are other sources of contamination that should be 
guarded against. One of these is uncleanly habits on the part of 
the milker. It is desirable that he be attired in clean overalls and 
jacket; these need not be expensive and can be slipped on Just 
before milking. The hands of the milker should be washed clean 
and dried before he begins his work. Much may be said as to the 
method of milking, but it is understood by all practical dairy- 
men that a cow should be milked withi "dry" and not with wet 
hands. Many have acquired the habit of milking "wet/' as it is 
usually termed, and it may be hard for them to reform, but if they 
will observe the filthiness of this practice they will recognize this 
as a great source of contamination. 



56 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

TUBEECULOSIS. 

No treatise on the subject of dairying is complete unless some 
mention is made of tuberculosis, that dreaded disease which has 
already carried olf thousands of cattle, and whose ravages continue, 
almost unabated. 

It is said that one out of every seven people who die, fall vic- 
tims to tuberculosis, or consumption, as it is commonly called. 
It is now pretty generally believed that tuberculosis in cattle and 
consumption in the human family are practically one and the same 
disease, and that this disease can be transmitted from one species 
to the other. Young children fed on the milk of tuberculous cows 
are likely to contract the disease, and calves and pigs consuming 
infected milk are almost certain to be affected. 

Tuberculosis is a germ disease, that is, it is caused by the growth 
and multiplication of very minute organisms within tlie ani- 
mal body. The disease cannot be contracted without the entrance 
of these germs. The introduction of a single infected animal 
into the herd is likely to inoculate the whole herd as the tubercle 
germs are thrown off with the saliva and other excretions. These 
germs when dry will live in the dark for months and, settling upon 
the hay and other feed, are transmitted from animal to animal. 
Skim milk from creameries and whey from cheese factories are 
other sources of infection. Here the milk from infected cows is 
mixed in a common tank with other milk and the whole supply 
thus becomes contaminated. In this way the disease is often 
spread throughout an entire neighborhood. 

Tubercle bacilli cannot live at a temperature of IGO degrees 
F., and in direct sunlight they die in less than two hours. Pas- 
teurizing whey and skim milk, that is lieating it to 160 degrees P., 
will kill these germs, and prevent the spread of disease from fac- 
tory centers. Plenty of sunlight, fresh air and the use of white- 
wash in stables, are effective means of preventing the rapid spread- 
ing of the disease in herds. 

However, the disease cannot be communicated from one vicinity 
to another except through the introduction of diseased animals into 
the neighborhood, and some states have required that all animals 
imported within their borders should pass the tuberculin test. 
Now what is this test? 

The United States Department of Agriculture is engaged in 
preparing and distributing tuberculin, a coffe-colored liquid, which 
if injected under the skin of infected animals will cause a rise in 

57 



the animal's temperature. JSTo change is produce^, however, by 
injecting this substance under the skin of a healthy animal. Dur- 
ing the test the animals must be kept in as nearly a normal condi- 
tion as possible Before injection four temperatures are taken with 
a clinical thermometer, two hours apart. These temperatures are 
taken by inserting the thermometer in the rectum and allowing 
it to remain there for three or four minutes before reading. About 
half a teaspoonful (2 c. c.) of the tuberculin is then injected un- 
derneath the skin, usually at the shoulder, with an ordinary 
hypodermic syringe. Eight to ten hours after injection five more 
temperatures are taken in the same manner, two hours apart. A 
rise in temperature of two degrees is considered a "positive reac- 
tion," that is, the animal is said to be diseased. 

Diseased animals should be removed from the rest of the herd 
and disposed of according to the law in force in the state. 

The use of hand separators will prevent the introduction of 
the disease from factory skim milk and if no animals are pur- 
chased but those that have been tested, the herd may be kept free 
from the disease. Dr. H. L. Russell, dean of the College of Agricul- 
ture, University of Wisconsin, one of the greatest authorities on this 
subject in this country, says in a recent bulletin published by the 
Experiment Station at Madison : 

"If dairy farmers will do three things they may keep their 
herds free from the scourge : — 

"First — Find out the actual condition of their herds by applying 
the tuberculin test. 

"Second — If found free, buy in the future only tested stock or 
test them before admitting same to herd. 

"Third — For young stock and hogs use skim milk separated at 
home, or pasteurized properly at creamery or factory. 

"If disease is found, reacting animals should be separated and 
disposed of properly, and the barns adequately disinfected. In the 
case of valuable animals, healthy calves may generally be secured 
from reacting cows, if calves are separated at birth and fed on 
boiled milk of mother or milk from non-reacting animals. Re- 
member the danger from tuberculosis lies in its hidden course of 
development, and for the sake of the herd itself, as well as for 
human beings consuming the products of the herd, one cannot af- 
ford to neglect taking such steps as are necessary to find out pos- 
itively the condition of their herd. If a stock owner is in the habit 
of buying and selling cattle, especially dairy stock, it is almost im- 
possible to escape the disease. Even in some of the best beef breeds 
the disease has been widely prevalent. * * * j-f Qj^|y tested 
dairy stock could be transferred from one owner to another the 

S8 



rapid spread of the disease would be checked, and it woidd not 
require niuch time to eradicate the herds already' involved." 

CHAPTER XIX. 

DISPOSING OF MILK AND CEEAM. 

Assuming that the dairyman has a herd that is producing a 
good flow of milk, the question naturally arises, what shall he do 
with this milk in order to have it yield him the largest net returns ? 
The answer can only be given by the dairyman himself after care- 
fully studying his local situation. In certain localities it may be 
advisable to handle milk in a way differing from that in another 
locality, and local conditions must necessarily govern the methods- 
of the disposal of milk. For instance, if a man is situated in close 
proximity to a city where the consumption of whole milk is very 
large it may be advisable for him to wholesale it directly to a milk 
dealer, or have a private trade of liis own to which he can deliver 
the same. In this case the necessary additional investment in 
horses, wagons, etc., must be considered. In selling whole milk 
it must also be remembered that nothing is returned to the farm 
in the shape of skim milk. While the profits of selling milk in 
this way may appear larger, two things must be borne in mind, 
viz., the cost of delivery and the loss of the skim milk. The reader 
is referred to an earlier chapter entitled "The Eelation of Dairying 
to the Soil," which calls attention to the loss by removal of fertility 
to the soil when selling whole milk off the farm. 

Of course, if the farmer is eight or ten miles from a city such 
a method will be out of the question. He may then be compelled 
to sell his milk to a cheese factory, and in this case return to the 
farm about ninety pounds of whey for every one hundred pounds 
of milk delivered. The quality of whey varies greatly from time 
to time, depending upon the care it receives at the factory. Its 
food value is only about half as much as that of skim milk, because 
all of the casein has been removed from the milk in the process of 
cheese making. 

Or he may have an opportunity to sell his milk to a creamery 
where practically eighty pounds of skim milk are returned to him 
for every one hundred pounds of milk delivered. Whether to sell 
to a creamery rather than to a cheese factory, or vice versa, depends 
entirely upon local conditions. However, he must not lose sight 
of the fact that the skim milk returned is of more value to him 
than the whey, if he can make use of the same for feeding purposes. 

One of the most profitable methods in many places is the sell- 

59 



iiig of milk in the shape of cream. Many objceMons have been 
raised by creamerymen against the introduction of the hand sep- 
arator, but there is no question but that in many localities this 
is the only practical method that can be employed owing to the 
distance that the farmers live from the creamery, making long 
hauls necessary, whdch expense can be greatly reduced by deliver- 
ing cream. Even in many important dairy regions of this coun- 
try it has proven its Avorth, so that there is no question but that 
the hand separator is bound to have a place on many farms. The 
fact that the dairyman, owning one of these machines, has better 
skim milk to feed his yoimg stock is an important item. Then 
again, we hear very much about the spread of tuberculosis and 
there is' no question but that this disease can be spread through 
factory skim milk and whey. If the farmer wants to keep his 
herd free from this dread disease it behooves him to be very careful 
as to the feeding of these factory by-products. 

Another important point is the fact that by the use of the hand 
separator the bulk that must be cooled is very materially lessened. 
Those who make an effort to deliver milk or cream in good condi- 
tion appreciate this. 

Instead of selling cream to a butter factory, it may be sold for 
direct consumption. This is probably the most profitable method 
and yields the largest returns. The demand for good cream is 
rapidly increasing. In every city parties may be found who want 
to get good cream and are willing to pay for it. They may be 
hotel managers, boarding house keepers, candy makers, ice cream 
manufacturers, and other people who are ready to contract for 
cream of a certain richness at a definite price per gallon. 

To show that it pays to cater to this sort of trade let it be as- 
sumed that a dairyman can sell a gallon of twenty-five per cent 
cream for seventy cents. This may be more than a farmer can 
obtain in certain sections, but it is a fact that in many parts of 
this country even a higher price than this may be obtained. 

A gallon of cream weighs from 8.2 to 8.4 pounds, depending 
upon its richness. Eoughly speaking a gallon of cream testing 25 
per cent contains about 2 pounds of fat. This 2 pounds of fat 
will make about 2 1-3 pounds of butter. If 70 cents is received for 
a gallon of 25 per cent cream it is practically equivalent to 30 
cents a pound for butter. Besides this the extra labor of ripening 
the cream, washing the butter, salting and packing it are avoided. 

There is no separator manufactured that will deliver cream 
uniform in richness from day to day. Variations in tests, as has 
been previously explained, may be due to the rate at which the 
milk is fed into the bowl, the speed at which the separator is 

60 



turned, the richness of the milk, and the temperature of tlie milk. 
For the above reasons occasional testing of the cream, therefore, to 
determine its richness cannot be depended upon, and on this 
account a farmer may be <lelivering a richer cream than is con- 
tracted for, losing money thereby. He cannot expect to offset this 
by delivering a poorer cream at times, because this will arouse 
dissatisfaction and he will lay himself liable to a breach of con- 
tract. The only safe way is to test the cream eacb time it is 
delivered and then add sufficient milk to dilute it to the required 
per cent of fat. This is called standardizing and is not so difficult 
as might l)e imagined. How this may be done is best illustrated 
by the use of the diagram below: 

30- 




Assuming that the dairynum has tested his cream and finds 
tliat it contains 30 per cent fat, he will place tlio 'M) in the \\\)\)vv 
left hand corner of the square. It would be natural for him to 
dilute the cream with skim milk which we will assume tests 0, 
although it may test .1 of 1.0 per cent fat; for practical work, 
however, it may be said to test nothing; 0, therefore, is placed in 
the lower left hand corner. His contract calls for a 25 per cent 
cream, and 25 is placed where the diagonal lines cross in the center 
of the square. Subtracting 25 from 30 and following the diagonal 
line we place the difference, 5, in the lower right hand corner. 
The difference between and 25 is 25 and we put that in the upper 
right hand corner. We now have figures in each of the four cor- 
ners. The diagram may now be explained as follows: Of the 30 
per cent cream we take 25 pounds and of the skim milk 5 pounds; 
pouring these two together we have 30 pounds of 25 per cent 
cream. In other words, for every 25 pounds of 30 per cent cream 
5 pounds of skim milk must be added to dilute the cream so that 
it has a richness of 25 per cent fat, the quality of the cream con- 
tracted for. 

Again, let us assume that a dairyman has contracted to sell a 
20 per cent cream. He places the 20 in the center of the diagi'am. 
He tests his cream and finds that it contains 32 per cent fat. He 
has no skim milk with which to dilute this cream and must use 
whole milk. Upon testing the same he finds it to read 3.6 per cent 
fat. As before, he puts the cream test in the upper left hand 
corner and the milk test in the lower left hand, corner. The dif- 



ference between 20 and 32 is 12; this is placed in t^e lower right 
hand corner. The difference between 30 and 3.G is 16.4 which is 
placed in the npper right hand corner. Now, for every 1G.4 pound.s 
of 32 per cent cream he must add 12 pounds of milk testing 3.6 
per cent, and when he pours these two together he will have 28.4 
pounds of 20 per cent cream. 



1G.4 




The chief objection to the standai'diziiig of cream is that it 
requires the dairyman to make a test of the cream each time it is 
to be delivered. This, however, is not a valid objection inasmuch 
as the returns usually more than pay for the trouble. 

Whether or not it will be profitable for a farmer to invest in an 
equipment so that he can properly make butter is another question 
that he only can answer. The question resolves itself into this: 
Can he get an increased price for his product sufficient to warrant 
incurring the additional expenditure of money and labor necessary 
to produce a marketable product? 

In certain sections of Europe butter is made of very sweet 
cream which finds a ready sale. Such butter, however, has a pe- 
culiar flat, insipid flavor, objectionable to most people at first, but 
a taste for which can easily be acquired. This kind of butter does 
not keep well and therefore must be delivered fresh from the churn. 

In America people generally want what is known as ripened 
cream butter. Such butter has better keeping qualities. Cream 
for this kind of butter must undergo a fermentation process 
which is usually termed "ripening." One of the objects of 
ripening cream is to produce flavor, and as flavor is a most im- 
portant point to be considered it is evident that the ripening must 
be done properly. To hasten this process, and at the same time to 
aid it, it is often advisable to add what is termed a "starter." A 
good starter is a quantity of milk or skim milk in which the 
desirable organisms producing good flavors in butter have gained 
the ascendency, and when added to the cream have a tendency to 
check the development of the less desirable organisms. In this 
way the dairyman may control the flavor of his butter. 

The matter of temperature is also an important point. As a 
rule cream is ripened at a temperature of 65 to 70 degrees F., and 
when it reaches the right acidity (which may easily be determined 

62 



by any one of the many acidity tests available), the cream is 
cooled to about 54 degrees and held at this temperature for at least 
two hours before churning, with an occasional stirring. When cream 
is held for three or four days before churning, it should be well 
stirred at least twice each day. It is not desirable to hold cream at 
a low temperature longer than necessary, because, as has been pre- 
viously stated, at these low temperatures organisms develop that 
produce bitter flavors. Therefore the ripening process should be 
started as soon as possible after separation because the development 
of the lactic acid germs has a tendency to check the growth of these 
bitter flavor organisms. Great care must also be exercised to see 
that the cream does not get too sour, inasmucli as the keeping 
quality of the butter may be seriously impaired by over ripening. 

The best kind of a chuni is one that has no internal parts. A 
barrel churn is about as satisfactory as any on the market. The 
cream, being at a low temperature, should not gather in much less 
than thirty minutes, otherwise the butter is apt to have a soft 
body. When the butter is gathered into granules about the size of 
wheat grains the buttermilk should be drained off and some clean, 
cold water added and the butter washed. Care should be exercised 
to prevent overchurning, for when butter is gathered into large 
lumps it cannot be washed properly. Since the purpose of washing 
butter is to remove most of the curd it is very essential that the 
granules be left small so that the curd can be easily removed. 
The amount of salt added is governed by the demands of the 
market. During the working process the salt should be given time 
to dissolve so that when the butter has been worked enough there 
will be no grittiness. It is very essential that the salt be uniformly 
distributed throughout the butter, otherwise we obtain what is known 
as mottles. Mottles are quite characteristic of dairy butter, and are 
very undesirable. They can easily be avoided by observing care in 
the method of manufacturing the butter. The style of package is 
regulated by the demand of the consumer, and of late years the one 
pound prints and two pound rolls have become very popular. Any 
other size or style of package may be used, but in every case the 
package should be neat and attractive. In fact, the two points to 
be observed in making butter are to produce an article that will 
be attractive to the eye and tickle the palate. 

In conclusion it may be well to compare the four methods of 
disposing of milk. To make this comparison we will assume that 
100 pounds of milk are sold to a milkman at $1.30; this milk 
testing about 3.6 per cent fat, will make about 4.2 pounds of but- 
ter, or about 10 pounds of cheese, or about 1.8 gallons of 25 per 
cent cream. The butter is valued at 25 cents per pound net, the 

63 



cheese at 11 cents per pound net and the cream containing 25 per 
cent fat at 70 cents per gallon net. It is likewise assumed that skim 
milk is worth 30 cents per hundred and whey 15 cents per hundred, 
and that the dairyman will receive ahout 80 pounds of skim milk 
or 90 pounds of whey for every 100 pounds of milk he delivers to 
the factory. 

100 lbs. milk testing 3.6 per cent fat — 

1. Sold at wholesale .fl.SO 

2. Made into butter, 4.2 lbs. at 2."'>c per lb .$1.05 

80 lbs. skim milk at 30c per 100 lbs 24 

1.29 

3. Made into cheese, 10 lbs. at lie per lb 1.10 

90 lbs. whey at 15c per 100 lbs 13 

1.23 

4. Sold as cream, 1.8 gal. 25 per cent cream at 70c per gal. 1.2G 
80 lbs. skim milk 24 

1.50 

From the above the reader can easily see the profit in selling 

cream for direct consumption, providing he can get a suitable 
market for the same. Even at so low a figure as 60 cents per gal- 
lon, the dairyman would receive $1.32 for his 100 pounds of milk. 




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